第一章 物理量与单位
Physical quantities and units — 涵盖基本量与导出量推导、方程齐次性检验、常见物理量数量级估算、系统与随机误差分析、精密度与准确度、不确定度合成以及矢量的正交分解与合成。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
1.1 物理量与数量级估算 Physical quantities & Estimation
物理学研究的是客观世界中可以被测量的性质。一个完整的物理量(Physical quantity)必须同时包含两部分:
例如 $m = 9.6\text{ kg}$,其中 $9.6$ 是数值,$\text{kg}$ 是单位。只写 “9.6”、只写 “kg”、或只写 “质量” 都不代表一个物理量的测量值。百分数(如 6.4%)是两个同类量的无量纲比值,本身没有单位,不是对物理量的一次测量。
1.1.1 考试必背数量级估算 Typical Estimates
CIE 考纲明确要求考生对日常现实生活中的物理量具备合理估算能力(通常只需正确到 $10^n$ 数量级)。下表为历年真题高频考点:
| 物理量 Quantity | 典型参考值 Typical Value | 解题联想 / 备注 |
|---|---|---|
| 成年人质量 | $70\text{ kg}$ | 体重约为 $700\text{ N}$ |
| 家用小汽车质量 | $1000 \sim 1500\text{ kg}$ | 大象质量约为其 3~4 倍(约 $4000\text{ kg}$) |
| 一个普通苹果重量 | $\approx 1\text{ N}$ | 质量约为 $100\text{ g}$ ($0.1\text{ kg}$) |
| 人正常步行速度 | $1.5\text{ m s}^{-1}$ | 慢跑速度约 $3 \sim 5\text{ m s}^{-1}$ |
| 高速公路行车速度 | $30\text{ m s}^{-1}$ | 即约 $110\text{ km h}^{-1}$ |
| 常温常压空气声速 | $330 \sim 340\text{ m s}^{-1}$ | 真空中的光速为 $3.0 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}$ |
| 一层标准楼层高度 | $3\text{ m}$ | 人体身高约 $1.7\text{ m}$ |
| 普通原子直径 | $10^{-10}\text{ m}$ ($0.1\text{ nm}$) | 原子核直径为 $10^{-15} \sim 10^{-14}\text{ m}$ |
| 可见光波长 | $400 \sim 700\text{ nm}$ | 紫光 $400\text{ nm}$,红光 $700\text{ nm}$ |
| 常温纯水密度 | $1000\text{ kg m}^{-3}$ | 常温常压空气密度约 $1.2\text{ kg m}^{-3}$ |
| 海平面标准大气压 | $1.0 \times 10^5\text{ Pa}$ ($100\text{ kPa}$) | 对应约 $10\text{ m}$ 水柱压强 |
| 充气标准足球体积 | $\approx 6000\text{ cm}^3$ ($6 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}^3$) | 半径 $r \approx 11\text{ cm}$,公式 $V = \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3$ |
1.2 国际单位制与齐次性 SI units & Homogeneity
1.2.1 六大 SI 基本量与基本单位
国际单位制(SI)选定了少数几个相互独立的基本量(Base quantities),考纲要求掌握以下 6 个:
| 基本量 Base Quantity | 量符号 | SI 基本单位 Base Unit | 单位符号 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 质量 mass | $m$ | kilogram | $\text{kg}$ (注意不是 g) |
| 长度 length | $l, x, s$ | metre | $\text{m}$ |
| 时间 time | $t$ | second | $\text{s}$ |
| 电流 electric current | $I$ | ampere | $\text{A}$ |
| 热力学温度 thermodynamic temperature | $T$ | kelvin | $\text{K}$ (注意不是 $^\circ\text{C}$) |
| 物质的量 amount of substance | $n$ | mole | $\text{mol}$ |
- 量与单位的混淆:基本量是 current,基本单位是 ampere。问 “SI base quantity” 时选 current;问 “SI base unit” 时选 ampere。
- 电荷 (Charge) 不是基本量:电荷量 $Q$ 是导出量,单位库仑 $\text{C} = \text{A s}$。
1.2.2 导出单位及其推导 Derived Units
导出量由基本量通过物理定义公式计算而来。考试中要求能将任何导出单位化简为 SI 基本单位表示:
| 导出量 | 定义式 | 专用导出单位 | 用 SI 基本单位表示 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 力 Force | $F = ma$ | newton ($\text{N}$) | $\text{kg m s}^{-2}$ |
| 压强 Pressure | $p = F/A$ | pascal ($\text{Pa}$) | $\text{kg m}^{-1}\text{s}^{-2}$ |
| 功与能量 Work, Energy | $W = Fs$ | joule ($\text{J}$) | $\text{kg m}^2\text{s}^{-2}$ |
| 功率 Power | $P = W/t$ | watt ($\text{W}$) | $\text{kg m}^2\text{s}^{-3}$ |
| 电势差 / 电压 p.d. / Voltage | $V = W/Q$ | volt ($\text{V}$) | $\text{kg m}^2\text{s}^{-3}\text{A}^{-1}$ |
| 电阻 Resistance | $R = V/I$ | ohm ($\Omega$) | $\text{kg m}^2\text{s}^{-3}\text{A}^{-2}$ |
| 强度 Intensity | $I = P/A$ | $\text{W m}^{-2}$ | $\text{kg s}^{-3}$ |
1.2.3 方程的齐次性 Homogeneity
如果一个物理公式中每一项(每一加号或等号两边)的 SI 基本单位完全相同,则称该方程是齐次的(Homogeneous)。
- 齐次是物理方程正确的“必要非充分条件”:一个正确的物理公式必定是齐次的;但齐次的公式不一定在物理上正确(因为无量纲系数如 $\frac{1}{2}, 2\pi$ 无法通过量纲检验出来)。
- 例如 $s = ut + at^2$ 是齐次的(各项均为 $\text{m}$),但物理上缺了系数 $\frac{1}{2}$,因而是错的。
1.2.4 十进制词头 Prefixes
| 词头 | 符号 | 乘数因子 | 词头 | 符号 | 乘数因子 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pico | $\text{p}$ | $10^{-12}$ | deci | $\text{d}$ | $10^{-1}$ |
| nano | $\text{n}$ | $10^{-9}$ | kilo | $\text{k}$ | $10^{3}$ |
| micro | $\mu$ | $10^{-6}$ | mega | $\text{M}$ | $10^{6}$ |
| milli | $\text{m}$ | $10^{-3}$ | giga | $\text{G}$ | $10^{9}$ |
| centi | $\text{c}$ | $10^{-2}$ | tera | $\text{T}$ | $10^{12}$ |
注意:带词头的单位在乘方时,词头一起乘方!$1\text{ cm}^3 = (10^{-2}\text{ m})^3 = 10^{-6}\text{ m}^3$;$1\text{ mm}^2 = 10^{-6}\text{ m}^2$。
1.3 误差与不确定度 Errors & Uncertainties
1.3.2 准确度与精密度 Accuracy vs Precision
1.3.3 不确定度合成规则 Combining Uncertainties
测量值通常记作 $x \pm \Delta x$,其中 $\Delta x$ 为绝对不确定度(Absolute uncertainty)。
百分比不确定度:$\text{Percentage uncertainty} = \frac{\Delta x}{x} \times 100\%$
1. 加减运算:若 $y = a + b$ 或 $y = a - b$,则绝对不确定度直接相加:$$\Delta y = \Delta a + \Delta b$$
2. 乘除运算:若 $y = ab$ 或 $y = \frac{a}{b}$,则百分比不确定度直接相加:$$\frac{\Delta y}{y} = \frac{\Delta a}{a} + \frac{\Delta b}{b}$$
3. 指数乘方:若 $y = a^n$($n$ 可以为分数或负数),则:$$\frac{\Delta y}{y} = |n| \frac{\Delta a}{a}$$
4. 通用公式:若 $y = \frac{k \cdot a^m b^n}{c^p}$,则:$$\frac{\Delta y}{y} = m\frac{\Delta a}{a} + n\frac{\Delta b}{b} + p\frac{\Delta c}{c}$$
1.4 标量与矢量 Scalars & Vectors
标量只有大小,没有方向;矢量既有大小,又有明确的方向。
| 标量 Scalars (只有大小) | 矢量 Vectors (大小 + 方向) |
|---|---|
| distance (路程), speed (速率), mass, time, energy, work, power, pressure, density, temperature, charge, resistance, amplitude (振幅), frequency | displacement (位移), velocity (速度), acceleration, force (含 weight, tension, friction, upthrust, drag), momentum (动量), impulse (冲量), field strength (电/磁/引力场强), torque (力矩) |
1.4.1 矢量合成与分解图解 Resolving Vectors
1.5 本章小结与教学提示 Summary & Teacher's Note
本章是整个 A-Level 物理的基石章节,建议分配 3–4 课时:
- 重点强化技能:(1) 从物理定义式逆向推导 SI 基本单位(如从 $P=W/t$ 推导瓦特);(2) 不确定度合成(特别强调乘方时指数提前乘百分比不确定度);(3) 共点力正交分解法。
- 历年 Paper 1 规律:每年前 3~4 题 100% 考察本章内容(单位、估算、不确定度、标量矢量),属于必须拿满分的保底题型。
- 学生高发失分陷阱:混淆电流与安培(量与单位选反);体积单位换算时忘记把词头同时立方(如 $\text{cm}^3 \to \text{m}^3$ 算成 $10^{-2}$ 甚至 $10^{-3}$,正确为 $10^{-6}$);把精密度与准确度概念说反。
1.6 历年真题精选题库与解析 Practice Questions
What are the base units for intensity?
正确答案:A
推导步骤:
根据物理定义,波的强度 $I = \frac{P}{A}$(单位时间内通过单位垂直面积的能量,即功率除以面积),导出单位为 $\text{W m}^{-2}$。
而功率 $P = \frac{W}{t}$,其单位 $\text{W} = \text{J s}^{-1} = (\text{kg m}^2 \text{s}^{-2})\text{s}^{-1} = \text{kg m}^2 \text{s}^{-3}$。
代入得:$\frac{\text{W}}{\text{m}^2} = \frac{\text{kg m}^2 \text{s}^{-3}}{\text{m}^2} = \text{kg s}^{-3}$。
故正确选项为 A。
What are the advantages of taking repeat measurements and calculating a mean in an experiment?
| taking repeat measurements | calculating a mean | |
|---|---|---|
| A | shows if the results are accurate | reduces the effects of random errors |
| B | shows if the results are accurate | reduces the effects of systematic errors |
| C | shows if the results are precise | reduces the effects of random errors |
| D | shows if the results are precise | reduces the effects of systematic errors |
正确答案:C
考点解析:
1. 重复测量(repeat measurements)可以看出多组读数之间的分散程度(spread of readings),因此展示的是测量结果是否精密(precise);
2. 计算平均值(calculating a mean)利用正负随机波动的相互抵消,有效减小随机误差(reduces the effects of random errors)。但它对系统误差完全无能为力(因为系统误差每次读数都偏向同一个方向,求平均依然存在相同偏差)。
The value of a quantity $X$ is calculated from the values of quantities $Y$ and $Z$ by using the equation $X = \frac{Y}{Z}$.
The percentage uncertainty in the value of $Y$ is twice the percentage uncertainty in the value of $Z$. What is the ratio $\frac{\text{percentage uncertainty in } X}{\text{percentage uncertainty in } Z}$?
正确答案:B
解析:
除法运算中,不确定度合成规则为百分比不确定度相加:$$\frac{\Delta X}{X} = \frac{\Delta Y}{Y} + \frac{\Delta Z}{Z}$$
设 $Z$ 的百分比不确定度为 $z$。根据已知条件,$Y$ 的百分比不确定度为 $2z$。
因此 $X$ 的百分比不确定度为 $2z + z = 3z$。
两者的比值为 $\frac{3z}{z} = 3$。
A student measures the current and the potential difference for a resistor in a circuit:
potential difference = (500.0 ± 0.1) mV
The measurements are used to calculate the resistance of the resistor. What is the percentage uncertainty in the calculated resistance?
正确答案:D
解析:
电阻公式 $R = \frac{V}{I}$,百分比不确定度相加:
$$\frac{\Delta R}{R} \times 100\% = \left(\frac{0.01}{50.00} \times 100\%\right) + \left(\frac{0.1}{500.0} \times 100\%\right) = 0.02\% + 0.02\% = 0.04\%$$
Three coplanar forces, $P$, $Q$ and $R$, act at a point and are in equilibrium.
The magnitude of $P$ is increased by 10%. The directions of the forces are unchanged. Which percentage increase, if any, is required to the magnitudes of $Q$ and $R$ for the forces to be once again in equilibrium?
正确答案:A
几何解析法:
因为三个力平衡,且各力的方向始终保持不变,所以三力构成的闭合封闭矢量三角形(Closed vector triangle)各内角始终保持不变(相似三角形)。
当边长 $P$ 放大 10%(即变为原长的 $1.1$ 倍)时,为保持矢量三角形依然封闭,另外两边 $Q$ 和 $R$ 也必须成比例放大 10%!
By placing one tick ($\checkmark$) in each row, complete the table to identify whether each of the listed quantities is a scalar or a vector.
| quantity | scalar | vector |
|---|---|---|
| amplitude | ||
| force | ||
| momentum | ||
| power |
Official Mark Scheme:
amplitude: scalar且power: scalar[B1]force: vector且momentum: vector[B1]
注:4 个全部勾选正确得 2 分;答对 2 或 3 个得 1 分;答对 0 或 1 个得 0 分。
第二章 运动学 Kinematics
Kinematics — 掌握位移、速度与加速度矢量概念、运动图像($s$-$t$、$v$-$t$ 图像斜率与面积)、匀加速直线运动四大 SUVAT 方程严谨推导、自由落体运动与两种测定 $g$ 的实验方法、抛体运动的独立性与速度正交合成。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
2.1 描述运动的物理量 Quantities Describing Motion
Displacement: the distance in a straight line from a reference point in a specified direction (vector).
位移(Displacement)是从初始参考点指向终点位置的有向直线线段,是矢量,具有大小和方向。
Velocity: rate of change of displacement (vector), $v = \frac{\Delta s}{\Delta t}$.
沿圆周运动 $\frac{3}{4}$ 圈时,平均速率按弧长计算,而平均速度仅按起点到终点的直线弦长计算。
减速(Deceleration / Retardation)指加速度方向与当前瞬时速度方向相反;在规定正方向后,代数计算时 $a$ 取负值。
1. 速度(Velocity)的官方标准定义必须是 "rate of change of displacement" 或 "change in displacement per unit time"。千万不能写成 "speed in a given direction"(这只是日常定性描述,CIE 评卷直接给 0 分)!
2. 加速度必须答 "rate of change of velocity",不能写成 "change in speed per unit time"(因为方向改变也会产生加速度)。
2.2 运动图像 Graphs of Motion
| 图像类别 | 切线斜率 Gradient | 下方图线面积 Area Under Graph |
|---|---|---|
| 位移–时间 $s$-$t$ 图像 | 瞬时速度 $v = \frac{\Delta s}{\Delta t}$ | 无物理意义 |
| 速度–时间 $v$-$t$ 图像 | 加速度 $a = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}$ | 位移 $s$(代数和);路程为面积绝对值之和 |
| 加速度–时间 $a$-$t$ 图像 | 加加速度 Jerk(不考) | 速度变化量 $\Delta v$ |
关键解题原则:在 $v$-$t$ 图像中,位于时间轴上方的面积代表正方向位移 $+s_1$,位于时间轴下方的面积代表反方向位移 $-s_2$。求物体总路程时取两者绝对值之和($s_1 + s_2$);求物体净位移时代数相加($s_1 - s_2$)。
A car moves in a straight line along a road. The velocity–time graph shows the variation with time $t$ of the velocity $v$ of the car:
- $t = 0 \to 10\text{ s}$: 从静止匀加速到 $12\text{ m s}^{-1}$;
- $t = 10 \to 35\text{ s}$: 保持 $12\text{ m s}^{-1}$ 匀速行驶;
- $t = 35 \to 40\text{ s}$: 刹车匀减速到静止;
- $t = 40 \to 80\text{ s}$: 以恒定加速度 $a = -0.25\text{ m s}^{-2}$ 反向加速行驶。
(i) State the feature of the graph that represents the distance travelled by the car between $t = 0$ and $t = 40\text{ s}$. [1]
(ii) Calculate the distance travelled by the car between $t = 0$ and $t = 40\text{ s}$. [1]
(iii) Determine the maximum magnitude of the acceleration of the car. [2]
(iv) At $t = 25\text{ s}$, the car is at point P. At $t = 40\text{ s}$, the car is $150\text{ m}$ from P. After $t = 40\text{ s}$, the car accelerates with $-0.25\text{ m s}^{-2}$ until it is again at P. Calculate the speed of the car when it is at point P for the second time. [2]
(v) At $t = 0$, displacement $= 0$. Sketch the variation of displacement with $t$ from $t = 0$ to $80\text{ s}$. [3]
(i) 图线与时间轴包围的几何面积(Area under the graph)。[B1]
(ii) 梯形面积公式:$\text{Area} = \frac{(25 + 40)}{2} \times 12 = 390\text{ m}$。[A1]
(iii) 最大加速度对应最陡峭的一段,即 $t = 35 \sim 40\text{ s}$:
$a = \frac{0 - 12}{40 - 35} = -2.4\text{ m s}^{-2}$。
加速度大小(magnitude)为 $2.4\text{ m s}^{-2}$。[C1][A1]
(iv) 从 $t = 40\text{ s}$ 起反向返回 P 点:初速 $u = 0$,加速度 $a = -0.25\text{ m s}^{-2}$,位移 $s = -150\text{ m}$。
由 $v^2 = u^2 + 2as$:$v^2 = 0 + 2(-0.25)(-150) = 75 \implies v = \sqrt{75} = 8.7\text{ m s}^{-1}$。[C1][A1]
(v) 位移草图评分踩分点 [3 marks]:
1. 曲线从原点出发,先上升后下降,且在 $t = 80\text{ s}$ 时始终保持在 $t$ 轴上方(净位移为 $390 - 200 = 190\text{ m} > 0$);[B1]
2. 位移最高点精确出现在 $t = 40\text{ s}$ 处;[B1]
3. 各段斜率变化正确:$0 \sim 10\text{ s}$ 斜率渐陡;$10 \sim 35\text{ s}$ 保持直线;$35 \sim 40\text{ s}$ 斜率减小;$40\text{ s}$ 之后斜率反向(为负且渐陡)。[B1]
2.3 匀加速直线运动 SUVAT 方程 Equations of Motion
当物体在一条直线上运动,且加速度 $a$ 恒定不变时,运动状态由五个物理量描述:初速度 $u$、末速度 $v$、加速度 $a$、位移 $s$ 和经历的时间 $t$(统称 SUVAT)。
严谨推导过程 Derivation:
(1) 由加速度定义 $a = \frac{v - u}{t}$,移项即得 $v = u + at$;
(2) 匀加速过程中平均速度为 $\frac{u + v}{2}$,总位移等于平均速度乘时间,得 $s = \frac{u + v}{2}t$;
(3) 将 (1) 代入 (2) 消去 $v$:$s = \frac{u + (u + at)}{2}t = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2$;
(4) 将 (1) 变形为 $t = \frac{v - u}{a}$ 代入 (2) 消去 $t$:$s = \frac{(u + v)(v - u)}{2a} = \frac{v^2 - u^2}{2a} \implies v^2 = u^2 + 2as$。
2. 在 $s, u, v, a, t$ 五个量中,圈出题干给出的 3 个已知量,以及要求解的 1 个目标量;
3. 直接挑选不含“第 5 个未知量”的那个方程求解。
极速做题诀窍:竖直上抛落回抛出点下方 $h$ 处时,净位移直接记作 $s = -h$,全程只需代入一次 $s = ut - \frac{1}{2}gt^2$,千万不要拆分成上升和下降两段重复计算!
2.4 自由落体与测定 $g$ 实验 Free Fall
在忽略空气阻力的理想真空条件下,地球表面附近任何物体自由下落的加速度均相同,称为自由落体加速度(Acceleration of free fall)$g = 9.81\text{ m s}^{-2}$,方向竖直向下,且与物体的质量、形状、大小完全无关。
2.4.1 考纲要求两种测 $g$ 实验方法对比
| 实验方法 | 实验操作与物理原理 | 数据处理与图像法 |
|---|---|---|
| 方法一:电磁铁与触发底板 | 断开电磁铁电路瞬间计时器自动开始计时,钢球落至底端撞开触发板(Trapdoor)断开电路停止计时,测得下落时间 $t$ 与距离 $h$。 | 由 $h = \frac{1}{2}gt^2$ 可知:绘制 $h$ 对应 $t^2$ 图像(过原点直线),图线斜率 $\text{Gradient} = \frac{g}{2} \implies g = 2 \times \text{斜率}$。 |
| 方法二:双光电门测速法 | 小球依次通过两个相隔高度为 $h$ 的光电门,根据球直径 $d$ 与挡光时间分别测出两处瞬时速度 $v_1 = \frac{d}{\Delta t_1}$, $v_2 = \frac{d}{\Delta t_2}$。 | 利用公式 $v_2^2 - v_1^2 = 2gh$,直接计算得:$$g = \frac{v_2^2 - v_1^2}{2h}$$ |
2. 空气阻力:选用密度大、表面光滑的小实心钢球,尽量减小空气阻力与浮力的比例影响。
3. 高度测量视差(Parallax error):读米尺时视线必须与刻度线平齐,并用设定标尺指针确保小球底端到触发板的间距对准。
2.5 抛体运动与二维运动独立性 Projectile Motion
抛体运动的物理本质是两个互相垂直方向上运动的独立叠加,连接两个分运动的唯一桥梁是公共时间 $t$:
1. 水平方向(无阻力,加速度 $a_x = 0$):
水平速度始终恒定:$v_x = u \cos\theta$,水平位移:$x = (u \cos\theta) t$
2. 竖直方向(恒定重力场,加速度 $a_y = -g$ 竖直向下):
竖直速度:$v_y = u \sin\theta - gt$,竖直位移:$y = (u \sin\theta) t - \frac{1}{2}gt^2$
3. 核心推论公式:
- 最高点处:$v_y = 0$,但水平速度 $v_x \neq 0$(最高点物体绝非静止!加速度依然为 $g$ 向下);
- 飞行总时间只由竖直方向决定:$t_{\text{flight}} = \frac{2u \sin\theta}{g}$;最大高度 $H = \frac{(u\sin\theta)^2}{2g}$;
- 任意时刻的合速度大小:$v = \sqrt{v_x^2 + v_y^2}$,方向 $\tan\alpha = \frac{v_y}{v_x}$。
2.6 本章小结与教学提示 Summary & Teacher's Note
本章建议课时为 4 课时:
- 图像题(Graphs)是 Paper 2 必杀技:几乎每年必考 $v$-$t$ 或 $s$-$t$ 图像题。必须训练学生在作切线求瞬时斜率时,两点跨度必须至少占整张图纸的一半以上(Large triangle rule),否则会被扣除读数精度分!
- 草图题踩分点:作位移草图时严格按官方 Mark Scheme 给分:(1) 起点坐标与是否穿轴;(2) 峰值/拐点出现的时间坐标;(3) 每一区间内斜率(即速度)的变化趋势。
- 抛体运动防错口诀:“水平竖直两分开,中间只有时间带;最高点上速度在,加速度始终是重力代”。
2.7 历年真题精选题库与解析 Practice Questions
Two projectiles, X and Y, are fired into the air from the same place on level ground and reach the same maximum height. Projectile X is fired vertically upwards and projectile Y is fired at an angle to the horizontal. Air resistance is negligible. Which statement is correct?
正确答案:C
考点深度剖析:
1. 抛体最大高度由竖直初速度决定:$H = \frac{u_y^2}{2g}$。因为两者最大高度相同,说明两者的竖直初速度分量 $u_y$ 必须完全相同;
2. 滞空总时间 $t = \frac{2u_y}{g}$ 只由竖直分速度决定,因此两者落回地面的飞行总时间必定完全相同(选项 C 正确);
3. 辨析其他选项:Y 在最高点还有水平速度 $v_x$,不是静止(A 错);Y 初速度包含水平和竖直两个分量,合初速度大于 X(B 错);Y 沿抛物线运动,总路程远大于 X(D 错)。
A lead sphere is released from rest at point X, a long way above the surface of a planet. The sphere falls in a vacuum. After a time of $4.0\text{ s}$, it has fallen through a vertical distance of $3.0\text{ m}$. Assume the acceleration of free fall is constant. How far will the sphere have fallen from point X at a time of $20\text{ s}$ after its release?
正确答案:B
比例法速解:
从静止释放的自由落体运动满足:$s = \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \implies s \propto t^2$。
下落时间从 $4.0\text{ s}$ 变为 $20\text{ s}$,时间扩大到原来的 $\frac{20}{4.0} = 5$ 倍;
因此下落位移扩大到原来的 $5^2 = 25$ 倍!
总位移 $s = 3.0\text{ m} \times 25 = 75\text{ m}$。
At time $t = 0$, an object moves from rest with constant acceleration in a straight line. At time $t$, the object is distance $s$ from its rest position. A graph is drawn of $s$ against $t^2$. Which statement describes the acceleration of the object?
正确答案:C
解析:
初速 $u = 0$,运动学方程为 $s = \frac{1}{2}at^2$。
与直线方程 $y = mx$ 对比(纵坐标 $y = s$,横坐标 $x = t^2$),图线斜率 $\text{Gradient } m = \frac{1}{2}a$。
因此物体的加速度 $a = 2 \times \text{Gradient}$(斜率的 2 倍)。
The water surface in a deep well is $78.0\text{ m}$ below the top of the well. A person at the top of the well drops a heavy stone down the well. Air resistance is negligible. The speed of sound in the air is $330\text{ m s}^{-1}$. What is the time interval between the person dropping the stone and hearing it hitting the water?
正确答案:D
分步推导:
总时间由“小球自由下落时间 $t_1$”和“撞水声传播回井口时间 $t_2$”两部分相加构成:
1. 下落阶段:$h = \frac{1}{2}gt_1^2 \implies 78.0 = \frac{1}{2}(9.81)t_1^2 \implies t_1 = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 78.0}{9.81}} = 3.988\text{ s}$;
2. 声音回传阶段(匀速):$t_2 = \frac{h}{v_{\text{sound}}} = \frac{78.0}{330} = 0.236\text{ s}$;
3. 总时间间隔:$t = t_1 + t_2 = 3.988 + 0.236 = 4.224\text{ s} \approx 4.22\text{ s}$。
A car travels anticlockwise along a horizontal circular road of radius $12\text{ m}$. The car takes a time of $4.0\text{ s}$ to move from position P to position Q (covering $\frac{3}{4}$ of the circle). What is the magnitude of the average velocity of the car for the journey from P to Q?
正确答案:A
概念辨析:
平均速度的定义是总位移与总时间的比值:$\bar{v} = \frac{\text{Displacement}}{\text{Time}}$。
逆时针转动 $\frac{3}{4}$ 圈后,P 点与 Q 点构成直角等腰三角形两顶点,直线距离(位移大小)为弦长:
$$\text{Displacement} = \sqrt{12^2 + 12^2} = 12\sqrt{2} \approx 16.97\text{ m}$$
所以平均速度的大小 $= \frac{16.97\text{ m}}{4.0\text{ s}} \approx 4.2\text{ m s}^{-1}$。
(注:选项 D 是平均速率 $\frac{\frac{3}{4} \times 2\pi \times 12}{4.0} \approx 14.1\text{ m s}^{-1}$,极易混淆!)
(a) Underline all the vector quantities in the following list: distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration. [1]
(b) A car of mass $1400\text{ kg}$ travels horizontally at $15\text{ m s}^{-1}$. Brakes are applied and the car decelerates uniformly to rest in a distance of $35\text{ m}$. Calculate:
(i) the initial kinetic energy of the car; [2]
(ii) the acceleration of the car; [2]
(iii) the resultant force on the decelerating car. [2]
(c) The initial speed is doubled to $30\text{ m s}^{-1}$ with the same braking force. Describe and explain the effect on:
(i) the magnitude of acceleration; [1]
(ii) the stopping distance. [2]
(a) 准确划线 displacement, velocity, acceleration(少划或多划不给分)。[A1]
(b)(i) $E_k = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 = \frac{1}{2}(1400)(15)^2 = 1.575 \times 10^5\text{ J} \approx 1.6 \times 10^5\text{ J}$。[C1][A1]
(b)(ii) $v^2 = u^2 + 2as \implies 0 = 15^2 + 2a(35) \implies a = -3.2\text{ m s}^{-2}$。[C1][A1]
(b)(iii) $F = ma = 1400 \times 3.2 = 4500\text{ N}$(或用功能原理 $W = Fs \implies F = \frac{1.6 \times 10^5}{35} \approx 4500\text{ N}$)。[C1][A1]
(c)(i) 加速度大小保持不变:合外力与质量均未改变,由 $a = \frac{F}{m}$,加速度必然不变。[A1]
(c)(ii) 制动距离变为原来的 4 倍(即 $140\text{ m}$)。
解释:初动能正比于初速度的平方($E_k \propto v^2$),速度翻倍导致动能变为 4 倍;在制动力 $F$ 相同的情况下,由功–能定理 $Fs = E_k$,制动距离必变为 4 倍(或由公式 $v^2 = 2as \implies s \propto u^2$ 推导)。[B1][B1]
第三章 动力学 Dynamics
Dynamics — 掌握质量与惯性、线动量与冲量、牛顿三大运动定律及受力分析($F=ma$)、流体阻力与终端速度物理过程及图像分析、动量守恒定律及其推导、完全弹性/非弹性碰撞相对速度关系与二维动量矢量合成。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
3.1 质量、力与牛顿运动定律
3.1.1 质量与惯性
质量 (mass) 是物体抵抗运动状态改变的性质(即惯性 inertia 的量度)。质量越大,同样的合力产生的加速度越小。质量是标量,单位 $\text{kg}$,与物体所在位置无关。
Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass; it is the gravitational force acting on an object: $$W = mg$$
重量是引力场对质量的作用力(矢量,竖直向下),$W = mg$,单位 $\text{N}$。同一物体在月球上质量不变,重量约为地球上的 $1/6$。
3.1.2 线动量
Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity: $$p = mv$$
动量是质量与速度的乘积,矢量,方向与速度相同,单位 $\text{kg}\cdot\text{m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$($=\text{N}\cdot\text{s}$)。
3.1.3 牛顿三大定律
A body will remain at rest or continue to move with constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force.
物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态,除非受到合力作用。
The resultant force acting on a body is proportional to the rate of change of its momentum (and in the same direction). With SI units: $$F = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t}$$
物体所受合力等于其动量的变化率,方向与动量变化的方向相同。质量不变时 $F = \frac{\Delta(mv)}{\Delta t} = m\frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} = ma$。
Force is the rate of change of momentum. ($1\text{ N}$ 是使 $1\text{ kg}$ 物体产生 $1\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-2}$ 加速度所需的力。)
注意:$F = ma$ 只在质量不变时成立;质量变化时(如火箭喷气、传送带上落沙)必须用 $F = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t}$。
- $F$ 是合力 (resultant force)。加速度方向总是与合力方向相同(但速度方向不一定与合力相同,例如减速运动、抛体运动)。
- 合力为零 $\iff$ 加速度为零 $\iff$ 静止或匀速直线运动,称为平衡 (equilibrium)。在 $s$–$t$ 图上,水平线(静止)和倾斜直线(匀速)都对应平衡。
- 冲量 (impulse) $F\Delta t = \Delta p$;$F$–$t$ 图下的面积等于动量变化量。
If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force on body A that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
若物体 A 对物体 B 施加一个力,则 B 对 A 施加一个大小相等、方向相反的力。
- 大小相等、方向相反;
- 作用在两个不同的物体上(所以永远不会相互抵消);
- 是同种性质的力(都是引力,或都是接触力/电磁力);
- 沿同一直线,同时产生、同时消失。
两个物体不必接触(引力对就不接触)。
书静止在桌面上时,重力 $W$ 与支持力 $R$ 大小相等方向相反,但它们不是第三定律力对——它们作用在同一物体(书)上,而且性质不同。$W$ 的第三定律配对力是书对地球的引力;$R$ 的配对力是书对桌面的压力。
A book rests on a table. The book has weight $W$. Newton’s third law describes the relationship between pairs of forces. Which force pairs with $W$ to make a Newton’s third law pair of forces?
A the contact force acting on the book due to the table
B the contact force acting on the table due to the book
C the friction force between the book and the table
D the gravitational force acting on the Earth due to the book
$W$ 是地球对书的引力,它的配对力必须是同种力(引力)、作用在另一物体(地球)上:书对地球的引力。
3.1.4 运用 $F = ma$ 解题
步骤:
(1) 隔离物体,画受力分析图 (free-body diagram);
(2) 规定正方向(通常取加速度方向);
(3) 合力 $=$ 沿正方向的力之和 $-$ 反方向的力之和;
(4) 列 $F_{\text{合}} = ma$。
3.2 非匀变速运动:阻力与终端速度
3.2.1 摩擦力与阻力
摩擦力 (friction):两个接触表面相对运动(或有相对运动趋势)时产生,方向与相对运动(趋势)方向相反。
黏滞力/阻力 (viscous force / drag):物体在流体(液体或气体)中运动时受到的阻力;空气中的阻力称为空气阻力 (air resistance)。阻力方向总与物体相对流体的运动方向相反,大小随速度增大而增大。
能量转化:摩擦和阻力都把动能转化为内能(热),使系统机械能减少。
3.2.2 有空气阻力的下落与终端速度
- 刚释放时:速度为零,阻力为零,合力 $= W$,加速度 $= g$;
- 速度增大:阻力 $D$ 增大,合力 $W - D$ 减小,加速度减小($v$–$t$ 图斜率逐渐减小);
- 终端速度:当 $D = W$ 时合力为零,加速度为零,速度达到最大并保持不变,称为终端速度 (terminal velocity)。
跳伞运动员 (Parachutist) 过程分析
以终端速度下落时打开降落伞,面积增大使阻力突然大于重量,合力向上,运动员减速;随速度减小阻力减小,直到再次 $D = W$,达到一个较小的新终端速度。
A hollow steel object is dropped from rest in air. The object reaches a terminal velocity $v$ before hitting the ground. Which change results in an increase in the terminal velocity?
A Drop a solid steel object of the same dimensions from the same height.
B Drop the object from a greater height.
C Throw the object downwards from the same height with an initial velocity $0.5v$.
D Throw the object upwards from the same height with an initial velocity $0.5v$.
终端速度时 $D = W$。外形相同时阻力只取决于速度;实心物体重量更大,需要更大的阻力才能平衡,所以终端速度更大。改变高度或初速度不改变 $D = W$ 的条件,终端速度不变。
3.3 动量守恒 Conservation of momentum
The total momentum of a system remains constant provided no resultant external force acts on the system.
若系统不受外力(或所受合外力为零),则系统的总动量保持不变:作用前总动量 $=$ 作用后总动量。
A、B 相互作用时间 $\Delta t$ 内,由第三定律 $F_{AB} = -F_{BA}$,由第二定律 $\Delta p_A = F_{BA}\Delta t$,$\Delta p_B = F_{AB}\Delta t$,所以 $\Delta p_A + \Delta p_B = 0$,总动量不变。
3.3.1 弹性碰撞与非弹性碰撞
| 物理量 / 碰撞类型 | 完全弹性碰撞 (perfectly elastic) | 非弹性碰撞 (inelastic) |
|---|---|---|
| 总动量 (Total momentum) | 守恒 (Conserved) | 守恒 (Conserved) |
| 总能量 (Total energy) | 守恒 (Conserved) | 守恒 (Conserved) |
| 总动能 (Total kinetic energy) | 守恒 (Conserved) | 减少(转化为内能、声能等) |
| 相对速率 (Relative speed) | 接近速率 $=$ 分离速率 | 分离速率 $<$ 接近速率 |
- 完全非弹性碰撞:碰后两物体粘在一起,以共同速度运动,动能损失最大(但动量仍守恒)。
- 爆炸/反冲:初总动量为零,炸开后各部分动量矢量和仍为零;总动能增加(化学能转化为动能)。
- 弹性碰撞的相对速度关系:$u_A - u_B = v_B - v_A$(一维,带符号)。这个式子与动量守恒联立,比解动能方程简单得多。
(a) Define momentum. [1]
(b) A ball X of mass $0.15\text{ kg}$ moves along a horizontal frictionless surface. The ball collides elastically with ball Y that is initially stationary. Balls X and Y have equal diameters but different masses. Figure 1.1 shows the variation with time of the velocity of ball X before, during and after the collision.
(i) Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of ball X during the collision. [2]
(ii) Determine the magnitude of the change in momentum of ball X due to the collision. [2]
(iii) Determine the total distance travelled by ball X during the collision. [2]
(c) (i) By considering relative speeds, explain why the velocity of ball Y after the collision must be $+0.80\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$. [2]
(ii) On Figure 1.1, sketch the variation of the velocity of ball Y with time between $\text{time} = 0$ and $\text{time} = 0.20\text{ s}$. [2]
(iii) Calculate the mass of ball Y. [2]
(a) 质量与速度的乘积 (product of mass and velocity)。注意不能写 speed。[B1]
(b)(i) $a = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} = \frac{-0.8 - 1.6}{0.12 - 0.09}$ [C1]
$= -80$,大小 $80\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-2}$ [A1]
(ii) $\Delta p = m\Delta v = 0.15 \times (-0.8 - 1.6)$ [C1]
$= -0.36$,大小 $0.36\text{ kg}\cdot\text{m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(iii) 碰撞中 X 先减速到零($0.020\text{ s}$ 内),再反向加速($0.010\text{ s}$ 内)。路程是两段面积之和:
$s_1 = \frac{1}{2} \times 1.6 \times 0.020 = 0.016\text{ m}$,$s_2 = \frac{1}{2} \times 0.80 \times 0.010 = 0.004\text{ m}$ [C1]
总路程 $= 0.016 + 0.004 = 0.020\text{ m}$ [A1]
(c)(i) 弹性碰撞:相对接近速率 $=$ 相对分离速率。[B1]
接近速率 $= 1.6 - 0 = 1.6$,所以 $v_Y - (-0.80) = 1.6$,$v_Y = +0.80\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$。[B1]
(ii) 从 $(0, 0)$ 到 $(0.09, 0)$ 的水平线;从 $(0.09, 0)$ 到 $(0.12, 0.80)$ 的直线;从 $(0.12, 0.80)$ 到 $(0.20, 0.80)$ 的水平线。[B1+B1]
(iii) 动量守恒:$0.15 \times 1.6 = 0.15 \times (-0.80) + m_Y(0.80)$ [C1]
$0.36 = 0.80 m_Y \implies m_Y = 0.45\text{ kg}$ [A1]
3.3.2 二维动量守恒
二维问题中动量守恒对每个方向分别成立:把各动量分解到两个互相垂直的方向($x$、$y$),分别列守恒方程;或直接画动量矢量三角形。
The diagram shows the view from above of two hard balls rolling along a horizontal table.
The balls each have a mass of $0.16\text{ kg}$. The initial velocity of ball P is $5.5\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ and the initial velocity of ball Q is $4.2\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$. The initial velocity of ball P is perpendicular to the initial velocity of ball Q. The balls collide at point X where ball Q stops immediately. There are no resistive forces acting on the balls. What is the speed of ball P after the collision?
A $1.3\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$
B $5.5\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$
C $6.9\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$
D $9.7\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$
Q 碰后静止,所以碰后 P 的动量等于碰前两球的总动量(矢量和)。两球质量相同,可直接合成速度: $$v_P = \sqrt{5.5^2 + 4.2^2} = 6.9\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$$ 方向介于原来两速度方向之间。
3.4 本章小结 Summary
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 动量 | $p = mv$ | 矢量,$\text{kg}\cdot\text{m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ |
| 牛顿第二定律 | $F = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t}$,$F = ma$ | $F$ 为合力 |
| 重量 | $W = mg$ | 引力场对质量的作用 |
| 冲量 | $F\Delta t = \Delta p$ | $F$–$t$ 图面积 |
| 动量守恒 | $\sum p_{\text{前}} = \sum p_{\text{后}}$ | 无外力,矢量式 |
| 弹性碰撞 | $u_A - u_B = v_B - v_A$ | 动能也守恒 |
| 终端速度 | $D = W$(液体中 $D + U = W$) | 合力为零 |
建议 5 课时。重点:(1) 第三定律力对的四个特征——选择题每年必考;(2) 终端速度的受力分析(开伞后为何减速);(3) 弹性碰撞用“相对速度”关系代替动能方程,计算量小得多;(4) 力的定义“rate of change of momentum”是 Paper 2 高频定义题。注意区分“动量守恒”与“动能守恒”:所有碰撞动量都守恒,只有弹性碰撞动能才守恒。
3.5 本章练习 Practice questions
A ball of mass $0.20\text{ kg}$ is falling vertically through a liquid and has not reached terminal velocity. The upthrust on the ball is $0.65\text{ N}$. At one instant, the drag force on the ball is $0.50\text{ N}$. What is the magnitude of the resultant force on the ball at this instant?
A $0.81\text{ N}$
B $1.5\text{ N}$
C $1.8\text{ N}$
D $2.0\text{ N}$
向下:$W = 0.20 \times 9.81 = 1.96\text{ N}$;向上:浮力 $0.65\text{ N}$ 与阻力 $0.50\text{ N}$(球向下运动,阻力向上)。
合力 $= 1.96 - 0.65 - 0.50 = 0.81\text{ N}$(向下)。
A bowling ball of mass $4.50\text{ kg}$ falls a short distance vertically into a tray of sand. The bowling ball decelerates uniformly in the sand. The deceleration of the bowling ball when it is in contact with the sand is $8.00\times 10^2\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-2}$. What is the magnitude of the force exerted on the bowling ball by the sand as it decelerates?
A $44.1\text{ N}$
B $3560\text{ N}$
C $3600\text{ N}$
D $3640\text{ N}$
取向上为正,加速度向上 $a = +800$。
$F - mg = ma \implies F = m(g + a) = 4.50 \times (9.81 + 800) = 3640\text{ N}$。(C 漏了重力。)
A toy car moves in a straight line. The graph shows the variation with time of the displacement of the car from its initial position.
A student investigates whether the forces acting on the car are in equilibrium at four different times, $t_1$, $t_2$, $t_3$ and $t_4$. At which times are the forces acting on the car in equilibrium?
A $t_1$, $t_2$, $t_3$ and $t_4$
B $t_1$ and $t_3$ only
C $t_1$ only
D $t_3$ only
四个时刻图线都是直线段:$t_1$、$t_3$ 静止,$t_2$、$t_4$ 匀速(斜率恒定)。加速度都为零,合力为零,都处于平衡。
A skydiver is falling at terminal velocity. The skydiver opens her parachute. Which quantity increases in magnitude immediately after the skydiver opens her parachute?
A the resultant force acting on the skydiver
B the velocity of the skydiver
C the distance between the skydiver and the ground
D the weight of the skydiver
开伞前合力为零;开伞瞬间阻力突然增大,超过重力,合力从零变为向上的较大值,所以合力的大小增大。速度随后减小,离地距离继续减小,重量不变。
(a) State the principle of conservation of momentum. [2]
(b) A stationary boat of mass $160\text{ kg}$ floats on water. The mast of the boat is vertical. A sack of mass $23\text{ kg}$ is thrown at the boat, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Immediately before colliding with the mast of the boat, the sack is travelling horizontally with a speed of $3.4\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$. The sack collides with the mast and remains in contact with it, without rebounding. Assume that resistive forces acting on the boat during the collision are negligible.
(i) Calculate the horizontal speed $v$ of the sack and boat immediately after the collision. [2]
(ii) The total kinetic energy of the sack and boat immediately before the collision is $E_1$. The total kinetic energy of the sack and boat immediately after the collision is $E_2$. Determine the ratio $E_2/E_1$. [3]
(iii) State and explain whether the collision between the sack and boat is elastic or inelastic. [1]
(a) 系统的总动量保持不变(或:作用前总动量 $=$ 作用后总动量),[M1]
条件:孤立系统 / 无合外力。[A1]
(b)(i) $23 \times 3.4 + 160 \times 0 = (23 + 160)v$ [C1]
$v = 0.43\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(ii) $E_{\text{k}} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$ [C1]
$\frac{E_2}{E_1} = \frac{\frac{1}{2}(183)(0.43)^2}{\frac{1}{2}(23)(3.4)^2} = \frac{16.9}{132.9}$ [C1]
$= 0.13$ [A1]
(iii) 碰后总动能小于碰前总动能($E_2 < E_1$),所以是非弹性碰撞。[B1]
(a) Define force. [1]
(b) A rocket is launched vertically upwards from a launch pad. The initial mass of the rocket, with all of its fuel, is $2.83 \times 10^6\text{ kg}$. For the first $60\text{ s}$ after lift-off, the rocket engine burns fuel at a rate of $2.0 \times 10^4\text{ kg}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ to produce a constant thrust force. Figure 1.1 shows the variation of the speed of the rocket with time for the first $60\text{ s}$ after lift-off.
Assume that the drag force acting on the rocket is negligible over this time.
(i) By considering the mass of unburnt fuel in the rocket, explain why the speed of the rocket does not increase linearly with time, despite the thrust force from the engine being constant. [2]
(ii) Describe how Figure 1.1 may be used to determine the acceleration of the rocket at lift-off. No calculations are required. [1]
(iii) The acceleration of the rocket at lift-off is $2.5\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-2}$. Determine a value for the thrust force $T$ produced by the rocket engine. [2]
(iv) Determine the kinetic energy of the rocket at time $60\text{ s}$ after lift-off. [3]
(v) Use Figure 1.1 to estimate the height of the rocket above the launch pad at time $60\text{ s}$ after lift-off. Explain your reasoning. [2]
(c) The mass of the emitted exhaust gases is the same as the mass of fuel burnt by the engine. Use your answer in (b)(iii) to calculate the speed at which the exhaust gases are emitted from the rocket. [2]
(d) In practice, the drag force on the rocket is not negligible. State the effect of the drag force on the acceleration at lift-off and on the kinetic energy at time $60\text{ s}$ (less / same / greater), compared with the values that assumed negligible drag force. [2]
(a) 力是动量的变化率 (rate of change of momentum)。[B1]
(b)(i) 燃料不断燃烧,火箭(含剩余燃料)的质量不断减小;[B1]
推力恒定、重力减小,合力增大而质量减小,由 $a = F/m$,加速度不断增大,所以速度–时间图的斜率增大,不是直线。[B1]
(ii) 在 $t = 0$ 处作曲线的切线,切线的斜率即为起飞时的加速度。[B1]
(iii) 起飞时 $T - mg = ma \implies T = m(g + a) = 2.83 \times 10^6 \times (9.81 + 2.5)$ [C1]
$T = 3.5 \times 10^7\text{ N}$ [A1]
(iv) $t = 60\text{ s}$ 时质量 $m = 2.83 \times 10^6 - 60 \times 2.0 \times 10^4 = 1.63 \times 10^6\text{ kg}$;[C1]
由图读出 $v = 360\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$,$E_{\text{k}} = \frac{1}{2}(1.63 \times 10^6)(360)^2$ [C1]
$= 1.1 \times 10^{11}\text{ J}$ [A1]
(v) 高度 $=$ 速度–时间图下的面积(火箭竖直上升,速率 $=$ 速度大小)。[B1]
用梯形近似(每 $10\text{ s}$ 一段):$10 \times (14 + 46.5 + 90 + 147.5 + 221 + 311) \approx 8.3 \times 10^3\text{ m}$,曲线下凸,实际略小,约 $8 \times 10^3\text{ m}$。[A1]
(c) 推力等于排出气体的动量变化率:$T = \frac{\Delta m}{\Delta t}v$ [C1]
$v = \frac{3.48 \times 10^7}{2.0 \times 10^4} = 1.7 \times 10^3\text{ m}\cdot\text{s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(d) 起飞时速度为零,阻力为零,加速度不变 (same);[B1]
飞行中阻力做负功、合力减小,$60\text{ s}$ 时速度更小,动能更小 (less)。[B1]
第四章 力、密度与压强 Forces, density and pressure
Forces, density and pressure — 掌握重心概念、力矩与力偶矩定义及计算($\tau = Fd$)、平衡条件(合力为零与合力矩为零)及共面力矢量三角形、密度与压强定义、液体静压强公式推导($\Delta p = \rho g \Delta h$)、浮力成因与阿基米德原理($F = \rho g V$)及终端速度受力分析。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
4.1 力的转动效果 Turning effects of forces
4.1.1 重心
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the whole weight of the object may be considered to act.
重心是物体全部重量可以看作集中作用的那一点。均匀规则物体的重心在其几何中心;悬挂物体静止时,重心一定在悬挂点的正下方(否则重力对悬挂点有力矩)。
4.1.2 力矩
The moment of a force (about a point) is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force.
力矩 = 力 × 支点到力的作用线的垂直距离,单位 $\text{N}\cdot\text{m}$。
定义中必须出现“perpendicular distance”和“line of action”。常见错误:用支点到作用点的距离 $r$ 直接乘 $F$(只有当力垂直于杆时才正确)。
4.1.3 力偶与力偶矩
A couple is a pair of forces that are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and act along parallel (but not the same) lines of action, so as to produce rotation only.
The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
力偶是一对大小相等、方向相反、作用线平行但不重合的力,合力为零,只产生转动。力偶矩 = 其中一个力 × 两力作用线之间的垂直距离:$\tau = Fd$。力偶矩与转轴位置无关。
Two forces, each of magnitude $F$, act on a beam of length $x$ as shown.
The perpendicular distance between the forces is $y$ and the two forces form a couple. What is the torque of the couple?
A $Fx$
B $2Fx$
C $Fy$
D $2Fy$
力偶矩 = 一个力 × 两力作用线间的垂直距离 = $Fy$。$x$ 是梁长,不是垂直距离;也不要乘 2。
4.2 平衡 Equilibrium
For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
物体处于平衡时,对任意一点,顺时针力矩之和等于逆时针力矩之和。
(1) 合力为零 (resultant force is zero):任意方向上的分力之和为零;
(2) 合力矩为零 (resultant torque/moment about any point is zero)。
- 选取有未知力(尤其是支点反力)作用的点为力矩中心,可以消去该未知力。
- 均匀杆的重量作用在中点。
- 只有合力为零而合力矩不为零(如力偶)时物体会转动,不平衡;只有合力矩为零而合力不为零时物体会平动,也不平衡。
4.2.1 三力平衡与矢量三角形
若物体在三个共面力作用下平衡,则:
- 三个力首尾相接组成一个闭合三角形(triangle of forces);
- 三个力的作用线(若不平行)交于一点。
- 可用正弦定理、作图或分解法求解。
(a) State the conditions required for an object to be in equilibrium. [2]
(b) A block rests in equilibrium on the centre of a uniform horizontal plank. The block is attached to two ropes, each of which passes over a fixed pulley and then attaches to an end of the plank as shown in Figure 2.1.
Where the ropes attach to the block and to the plank, the angle between the ropes and the vertical is $ heta$. There is negligible friction between the pulleys and the ropes. The mass of the block is $8.1 ext{ kg}$. The mass of the plank is $4.5 ext{ kg}$. Figure 2.2 shows the directions of the forces acting on the plank and the block. The weight of the plank is $W_ ext{P}$, the weight of the block is $W_ ext{B}$, the tension in each rope is $T$ and the forces that the plank and the block exert on each other each have magnitude $R$.
(i) Use Figure 2.2 to show that $R + W_ ext{P} = W_ ext{B} - R$. [2]
(ii) Use the equation in (b)(i) to calculate the magnitude of $R$. [2]
(a) 合力(任意方向)为零; [B1]
对任意点的合力矩为零。 [B1]
(b)(i) 木板竖直方向:$2T \cos heta = R + W_ ext{P}$ [M1]
木块竖直方向:$2T \cos heta + R = W_ ext{B}$,即 $2T \cos heta = W_ ext{B} - R$。两式联立得 $R + W_ ext{P} = W_ ext{B} - R$。 [A1]
(注意:$T$ 与竖直方向夹角为 $ heta$,竖直分量用 $\cos heta$,误用 $\sin heta$ 只得 1 分。)
(ii) $2R = W_ ext{B} - W_ ext{P} = (8.1 - 4.5) imes 9.81$ [C1]
$R = 18 ext{ N}$ [A1]
4.3 密度与压强 Density and pressure
Density is mass per unit volume: $$\rho = \frac{m}{V}$$
密度 = 质量 / 体积,单位 $ ext{kg}\cdot ext{m}^{-3}$。水的密度 $1000 ext{ kg}\cdot ext{m}^{-3} = 1.00 ext{ g}\cdot ext{cm}^{-3}$。
Pressure is the (normal) force acting per unit area: $$p = \frac{F}{A}$$
压强 = 垂直作用在单位面积上的力,单位 $ ext{pascal}$,$1 ext{ Pa} = 1 ext{ N}\cdot ext{m}^{-2}$。压强是标量。
4.3.1 液体压强公式的推导
想象液面下深度 $h$ 处有一个水平面积 $A$,其上方液柱的重量全部压在该面积上: $$\Delta p = \frac{F}{A} = \frac{mg}{A} = \frac{\rho V g}{A} = \frac{\rho (Ah) g}{A} = \rho g h.$$
$$\Delta p = \rho g \Delta h$$
液体中两点的压强差只取决于液体密度和竖直高度差,与容器形状、截面积无关。液面下深度 $h$ 处的总压强 $p = p_0 + \rho g h$($p_0$ 为液面上的大气压)。
4.3.2 浮力与阿基米德原理
浸在流体中的物体,下表面比上表面更深,受到的压强更大,因此向上的压力大于向下的压力,二者之差就是浮力 (upthrust)。
$$F = \rho g V$$
浮力等于物体排开的流体的重量。式中 $\rho$ 是流体的密度,$V$ 是物体浸入流体部分的体积(排开流体的体积)。
- 浮力与物体自身的密度、重量、浸没深度(完全浸没后)都无关。
- 漂浮:浮力 = 重量,$\rho_{\text{液}} g V_{\text{浸}} = \rho_{\text{物}} g V_{\text{物}}$,所以浸入比例 $\frac{V_{\text{浸}}}{V_{\text{物}}} = \frac{\rho_{\text{物}}}{\rho_{\text{液}}}$。液体密度越大,物体浮得越高。
A hydrometer is a device for measuring the density of liquids. It consists of a weighted bulb at the bottom of a calibrated tube.
The hydrometer is floating in a liquid at room temperature. The length of the tube above the level of the liquid is $h$. Which change causes $h$ to decrease?
A adding more liquid into the cylinder
B decreasing the density of the liquid
C increasing the air pressure above the liquid
D increasing the density of the liquid
漂浮时浮力 = 重量(不变),$\rho g V_{\text{浸}} = W$。液体密度减小,需要排开更多体积,所以浸得更深,露出部分 $h$ 减小。加液体不改变浸入体积;大气压同时作用于上下,不影响。
An object is held at rest just below the surface of a liquid of uniform density as shown in Figure 4.1.
The object is released and accelerates downwards until it reaches terminal velocity. The magnitude of the weight of the object is $W$. The magnitude of the upthrust acting on the object is $U$. The magnitude of the drag force acting on the object is $D$.
(a) By placing one tick in each row, complete Table 4.1 to show what happens to the magnitude of the three forces acting on the object as it accelerates. [3]
| force | increases | stays the same | decreases |
|---|---|---|---|
| W | |||
| D | |||
| U |
(b) State an expression, in terms of $W$, $D$ and $U$, that shows the relationship between the forces acting on the object when the object is at its terminal velocity. [1]
(c) The object has a mass of $0.070\text{ kg}$ and a volume of $1.0 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m}^3$. The density of the liquid is $1100\text{ kg}\cdot\text{m}^{-3}$. Calculate $D$ when the object is at terminal velocity. [3]
(a)
$W$:stays the same [B1]
$D$:increases(速度增大,阻力增大) [B1]
$U$:stays the same(完全浸没后排开体积不变,$U = \rho g V$ 不变) [B1]
(b) $W = D + U$ [A1]
(c) $W = 0.070 \times 9.81 = 0.69\text{ N}$ [C1]
$U = \rho g V = 1100 \times 9.81 \times 1.0 \times 10^{-5} = 0.11\text{ N}$ [C1]
$D = W - U = 0.69 - 0.11 = 0.58\text{ N}$ [A1]
4.4 本章小结 Summary
建议 4 课时。力矩题注意“垂直距离”的几何关系;三力平衡多用矢量三角形或正交分解。压强部分要求会推导 $\Delta p = \rho g \Delta h$(Paper 2 曾考 3 分推导题),推导中每一步都要写出($m = \rho V$,$V = Ah$,$W = mg$,$p = W/A$)。浮力的本质是上下表面的压强差,这一句解释也常考。
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 力矩 | $M = Fd$ | $d$ 为到作用线的垂直距离 |
| 力偶矩 | $\tau = Fd$ | 一个力 × 两作用线间距 |
| 平衡条件 | $\sum F = 0$,$\sum M = 0$ | 力矩对任意点 |
| 密度 | $\rho = m/V$ | $\text{kg}\cdot\text{m}^{-3}$ |
| 压强 | $p = F/A$ | $\text{Pa} = \text{N}\cdot\text{m}^{-2}$ |
| 液体压强 | $\Delta p = \rho g \Delta h$ | 只与竖直深度有关 |
| 浮力 | $F = \rho g V$ | $\rho$ 为流体密度 |
4.5 本章练习 Practice questions
Torque is the result of a pair of forces acting to cause a turning effect. Torque is calculated as the product of force and distance. Which row gives the correct description of the force and the distance used to calculate the torque of a couple?
| force | distance | |
|---|---|---|
| A | the magnitude of one force | the perpendicular distance between the two forces |
| B | the sum of the magnitudes of both forces | the perpendicular distance between the two forces |
| C | the magnitude of one force | the perpendicular distance from one force to the mid-point between the forces |
| D | the resultant of the two forces | the perpendicular distance from one force to the mid-point between the forces |
力偶矩 = 一个力的大小 × 两力作用线之间的垂直距离。
A horizontal uniform rod of length $10.0\text{ cm}$ is shown.
The rod is acted on by its weight $W$ and by three forces $F_1$, $F_2$ and $F_3$. The rod is in equilibrium. All the forces are vertical. $F_2 = \frac{4}{3}F_3$. What is the ratio $F_1/F_2$?
A $\frac{1}{4}$
B $\frac{1}{2}$
C $1$
D $2$
对重心($W$ 的作用点,$x = 5\text{ cm}$)取力矩,消去 $W$:
逆时针:$F_2 \times 3.0$;顺时针:$F_1 \times 3.0 + F_3 \times 2.0$。
$3F_2 = 3F_1 + 2F_3 = 3F_1 + 2 \times \frac{3}{4}F_2 = 3F_1 + 1.5F_2$,得 $F_1 = 0.5F_2$,比值 = $\frac{1}{2}$。
The density of paper is $800\text{ kg}\cdot\text{m}^{-3}$. A typical sheet of paper has a width of $210\text{ mm}$ and a length of $300\text{ mm}$. The thickness of a pack of 500 sheets of paper is $50\text{ mm}$. What is the mass of a single sheet of paper?
A $0.5\text{ g}$
B $5\text{ g}$
C $50\text{ g}$
D $500\text{ g}$
每张厚度 = $50 / 500 = 0.10\text{ mm}$。体积 $V = 0.210 \times 0.300 \times 1.0 \times 10^{-4} = 6.3 \times 10^{-6}\text{ m}^3$。$m = \rho V = 800 \times 6.3 \times 10^{-6} = 5.0 \times 10^{-3}\text{ kg} = 5\text{ g}$。
Which statement about equilibrium is correct?
A If a system is in equilibrium then there must be no forces acting on it.
B If a system is in equilibrium then there must be no resultant torque on it.
C If there are no moments due to forces acting on a system then it must be in equilibrium.
D If there is no resultant force acting on a system then it must be in equilibrium.
平衡要求合力和合力矩都为零,所以“平衡⇒ 合力矩为零”正确。A:可以受力,只要合力为零;C、D 只满足一个条件,不一定平衡。
An object is submerged in a liquid. Which statement about the upthrust acting on the object is correct?
A It is proportional to the density of the liquid.
B It is proportional to the density of the object.
C It is proportional to the total depth of the liquid.
D It is proportional to the weight of the object.
$F = \rho g V$,$\rho$ 是液体密度,所以浮力与液体密度成正比,与物体密度、重量、液体深度无关。
A uniform square picture is attached to a wire and hangs in equilibrium from a pin at point P, as shown in Figure 4.1.
The picture has weight $19\text{ N}$ and its centre of gravity is directly below P. The top side of the picture is horizontal. The wire forms an angle $\theta$ with the horizontal. The tension $T$ in the wire is $13\text{ N}$.
(i) Define the moment of a force about a point. [1]
(ii) Explain why the moment of the weight about P is zero. [1]
(iii) Calculate $\theta$. [2]
(i) 力与该点到力的作用线的垂直距离的乘积。 [B1]
(ii) 重力的作用线通过 P 点(P 到重力作用线的垂直距离为零),所以力矩为零。 [B1]
(iii) 竖直方向平衡:$2T \sin\theta = W$ [C1]
$\sin\theta = \frac{19}{2 \times 13} = 0.731$,$\theta = 47^\circ$ [A1]
第五章 功、能量与功率 Work, energy and power
掌握功的定义与计算($W = Fs\cos\theta$)、力–位移图像下的面积;推导重力势能变化公式($\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$)与动能公式($E_\text{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$);深入理解能量守恒定律及其在有阻力系统中的应用;掌握效率定义、功率定义与公式推导($P = W/t$,$P = Fv$)及综合题型求解。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
5.1 功 Work
Work done is the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the force: $W = Fs$.
功 = 力 × 沿力方向的位移。功是标量,单位 joule (J),$1\text{ J} = 1\text{ N}\cdot\text{m}$:$1\text{ N}$ 的力使物体沿力方向移动 $1\text{ m}$ 所做的功。做功的过程就是能量转移(转化)的过程:做了多少功,就转移了多少能量。
力与位移成夹角 $\theta$ 时的功
当恒力 $F$ 与位移 $s$ 之间存在夹角 $\theta$ 时,功的计算公式为: $$W = Fs\cos\theta$$ 其中 $F\cos\theta$ 是力沿位移方向的分量。
- $\theta = 90^\circ$ 时力不做功:此时 $\cos 90^\circ = 0$。例如匀速圆周运动的向心力、水平地面上移动物体时的重力和支持力均不做功。
- 力与位移方向相反(做负功):此时 $90^\circ < \theta \le 180^\circ$(如摩擦力、阻力 $\theta = 180^\circ$,$\cos 180^\circ = -1$),力做负功,物体的机械能减少,常表述为“克服阻力做功”(work done against resistive forces)。
- $F\text{–}s$ 图像下的面积等于所做的功:适用于恒力,更适用于变力(如弹簧拉伸过程)。
5.2 重力势能与动能
5.2.1 重力势能 Gravitational potential energy
推导过程:在均匀重力场中把质量为 $m$ 的物体匀速提高 $\Delta h$,所需外力等于物体重力 $F = mg$。外力所做的功为: $$W = Fs = (mg)(\Delta h)$$ 这些功全部储存为物体的重力势能,因此: $$\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$$
适用条件与特征:$\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$ 只适用于 $g$ 近似不变的地表附近(大距离天体引力势能见第 13 章 $E_\text{p} = -\frac{GMm}{r}$)。重力势能的变化只取决于初末位置的竖直高度变化,与物体的运动路径无关;水平移动物体时 $E_\text{p}$ 不变。
5.2.2 动能 Kinetic energy
推导过程:质量为 $m$ 的物体从静止($u = 0$)开始,在恒定合力 $F$ 作用下通过位移 $s$,末速度达到 $v$。由匀加速运动方程: $$v^2 = u^2 + 2as = 0 + 2as \implies as = \frac{1}{2}v^2$$ 合力做的功 $W = Fs = (ma)s = m(as) = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$。这些功全部转化为物体的动能,所以: $$E_\text{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$$ 一般地,若初速度为 $u$,合力做功为: $$W = Fs = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 - \frac{1}{2}mu^2$$ 即合力做的功等于物体动能的变化(动能定理)。
- $E_\text{k} \propto v^2$:速度从 $10\text{ m s}^{-1}$ 增加到 $20\text{ m s}^{-1}$ 与从 $70\text{ m s}^{-1}$ 增加到 $80\text{ m s}^{-1}$ 时,速度增量相同(均为 $10$),但动能增量截然不同!$\Delta E_\text{k} \propto (v_2^2 - v_1^2)$。
- 动能与动量的核心转化关系:$E_\text{k} = \frac{p^2}{2m}$(其中动量 $p = mv$)。
5.3 能量守恒 Conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one form to another. The total energy of a closed system is constant.
能量既不能创生也不能消灭,只能从一种形式转化为另一种形式(或从一个物体转移到另一个物体),封闭系统的总能量保持不变。
有阻力时的能量守恒方程(解题最核心关系)
在实际物理情境中,由于存在摩擦力与空气阻力,机械能不守恒。此时通用能量方程为: $$\text{初始总能量} = \text{末总能量} + \text{克服阻力做的功}$$ 例如物体沿粗糙斜面或轨道运动: $$E_{\text{k}1} + E_{\text{p}1} = E_{\text{k}2} + E_{\text{p}2} + F_\text{阻} s$$
A ball is projected from the ground at point X. The ball then reaches its maximum height at point Y before landing on lower ground at point Z. The diagram shows the path of the ball.
The ball leaves the ground at X with a kinetic energy of $5.2\text{ J}$. The ball has a kinetic energy of $9.6\text{ J}$ when it hits the ground at Z. The weight of the ball is $2.0\text{ N}$. The vertical height of Y above Z is $4.0\text{ m}$. Air resistance is negligible. What is the vertical height of Y above X?
A $1.8\text{ m}$
B $2.0\text{ m}$
C $2.2\text{ m}$
D $2.6\text{ m}$
从 X 到 Z:机械能守恒,动能增加量 $\Delta E_\text{k} = 9.6 - 5.2 = 4.4\text{ J}$。该增量等于重力势能的减少量 $W = W_\text{weight} \cdot \Delta h_\text{XZ}$,所以 X 比 Z 高出的高度为:
$$\Delta h_\text{XZ} = \frac{4.4\text{ J}}{2.0\text{ N}} = 2.2\text{ m}$$
已知 Y 距离 Z 的垂直高度为 $4.0\text{ m}$,所以 Y 高出 X 的垂直高度为:
$$h_\text{Y} - h_\text{X} = 4.0 - 2.2 = 1.8\text{ m}$$
5.4 效率与功率 Efficiency and power
Efficiency is the ratio of the useful energy (or power) output from a system to the total energy (or power) input.
$$\text{efficiency} = \frac{\text{useful energy output}}{\text{total energy input}} \times 100\% = \frac{\text{useful power output}}{\text{total power input}} \times 100\%$$
效率是有用输出能量与总输入能量之比,实际机械系统总小于 $100\%$(总有一部分能量以热能等无用形式耗散)。浪费的能量 = 总输入能量 − 有用输出能量。
Power is the work done per unit time (rate of doing work): $P = \frac{W}{t}$.
功率是单位时间内所做的功(或能量转移的速率),国际单位为 watt (W),$1\text{ W} = 1\text{ J s}^{-1}$。注意考试定义必须写 "work done per unit time",切勿漏词。
5.4.1 $P = Fv$ 的推导与应用
恒定牵引力 $F$ 使物体以速度 $v$ 沿力方向匀速运动,在 $\Delta t$ 时间内通过位移 $\Delta s$: $$P = \frac{W}{\Delta t} = \frac{F \Delta s}{\Delta t} = F \left(\frac{\Delta s}{\Delta t}\right) = Fv$$
$$P = Fv$$
其中 $F$ 是机器的驱动力(牵引力),$v$ 是沿力方向的即时速度。车辆在水平路面匀速行驶时,牵引力等于总阻力 $F = F_\text{阻}$,所以 $P = F_\text{阻} v$;最大车速 $v_\text{max} = \frac{P_\text{max}}{F_\text{阻}}$。
Which equation is not required to derive the formula $P = Fv$?
A $W = Fs$
B $v = s/t$
C $F = ma$
D $P = W/t$
推导只需要用到 $P = W/t$、$W = Fs$、$v = s/t$,整个过程不需要使用牛顿第二定律 $F = ma$。
An object of weight $3.0\text{ N}$ is moved vertically at a constant velocity $v$ by an electric motor. The electric motor has an efficiency of $25\%$. The object travels a vertical distance of $1.2\text{ m}$ in $3.0\text{ s}$. Assume that the useful output energy of the motor is equal to the increase in gravitational potential energy of the object. What is the electric power supplied to the motor?
A $0.3\text{ W}$
B $1.2\text{ W}$
C $4.8\text{ W}$
D $30\text{ W}$
有用输出功率 $P_\text{out} = \frac{mg\Delta h}{t} = \frac{3.0 \times 1.2}{3.0} = 1.2\text{ W}$。
输入电功率 $P_\text{in} = \frac{P_\text{out}}{\text{efficiency}} = \frac{1.2}{0.25} = 4.8\text{ W}$。
An electric train of mass $1.5 \times 10^4\text{ kg}$ travels up a slope at a constant speed as shown. At point X, the train has gravitational potential energy $7.4\text{ MJ}$. At point Y, the train has gravitational potential energy $13.0\text{ MJ}$. The train takes a time of $52\text{ s}$ to move from X to Y. The kinetic energy of the train is $1.3 \times 10^5\text{ J}$.
(a) Calculate the speed of the train. [3]
(b) The train is powered by an electric motor. The useful output power of the motor is $1.1 \times 10^5\text{ W}$.
(i) Define power. [1]
(ii) Determine the resistive force $F$ acting on the train as it moves from point X to point Y. [3]
(iii) The current in the motor is $95\text{ A}$. The potential difference (p.d.) across the motor is $1400\text{ V}$. Calculate the percentage efficiency of the motor. [3]
(a) $E_\text{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$ [C1]
$v^2 = \frac{2 \times 1.3 \times 10^5}{1.5 \times 10^4}$ [C1]
$v = 4.2\text{ m s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(b)(i) 单位时间内做的功 (work done per unit time)。 [B1]
(b)(ii) 电机有用输出总功 = 重力势能增加量 + 克服阻力做功:$W_\text{useful} = Pt$,克服阻力做功 $W_\text{resist} = Fs$ [C1]
$W_\text{resist} = (1.1 \times 10^5 \times 52) - (13.0 - 7.4) \times 10^6 = 1.2 \times 10^5\text{ J}$ [C1]
$s = vt = 4.2 \times 52\text{ m}$,所以阻力 $F = \frac{1.2 \times 10^5}{4.2 \times 52} = 550\text{ N}$ [A1]
(b)(iii) 输入电功率 $P_\text{in} = IV = 95 \times 1400 = 1.33 \times 10^5\text{ W}$ [C1]
$\text{效率} = \frac{P_\text{useful}}{P_\text{in}} \times 100\% = \frac{1.1 \times 10^5}{1.33 \times 10^5} \times 100\%$ [C1]
$= 83\%$ [A1]
5.5 本章小结与教学提示
建议 3–4 课时。两个推导($\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$,$E_\text{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$)和 $P = Fv$ 的推导都可能以“show that / derive”形式出现在 Paper 2 中,必须掌握标准推导规范。综合大题常把能量守恒、功率、效率与电学 $P = IV$ 结合(如电动列车题)。提醒学生:$\text{MJ}$、$\text{kJ}$ 等带词头的单位换算是丢分重灾区;计算阻力时“有用功 = $\Delta E_\text{p}$ + 克服阻力做功”一定要完整列出能量守恒关系。
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 功 | $W = Fs\cos\theta$ | 标量,国际单位 J |
| 重力势能变化 | $\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$ | 只适用于地表均匀重力场,路径无关 |
| 动能 | $E_\text{k} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$ | 合外力做功 = 动能增量 $\Delta E_\text{k}$ |
| 系统效率 | $\eta = \frac{\text{有用输出}}{\text{总输入}} \times 100\%$ | 可用能量比或功率比计算 |
| 功率 | $P = \frac{W}{t} = Fv$ | $\text{W} = \text{J s}^{-1}$ |
| 能量守恒 | $E_\text{初} = E_\text{末} + W_\text{克服阻力}$ | 封闭系统总能守恒 |
5.6 历年真题精选与解析 Practice questions
A parent and a child run from rest at the bottom of a stairway to the top of the stairway. Both take the same time. The mass of the parent is greater than the mass of the child. Which physical quantity for the parent and for the child has the same numerical value as a result of climbing the stairway?
A average kinetic energy
B average velocity
C gravitational potential energy gained
D power generated
两人的位移相同、所用时间相同,因此平均速度 $\bar{v} = \frac{s}{t}$ 必然具有相同的数值。动能、势能增量、功率都与物体的质量 $m$ 有关,质量不同则这些物理量数值不同。
An alpha particle has $2.2 \times 10^{-13}\text{ J}$ of kinetic energy. What is the speed of the alpha particle?
A $4.1 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$
B $5.8 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$
C $8.1 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$
D $1.2 \times 10^7\text{ m s}^{-1}$
$\alpha$ 粒子质量 $m \approx 4\text{ u} = 4 \times 1.66 \times 10^{-27}\text{ kg} = 6.64 \times 10^{-27}\text{ kg}$。
$$v = \sqrt{\frac{2E_\text{k}}{m}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 2.2 \times 10^{-13}}{6.64 \times 10^{-27}}} = 8.1 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$$
A small diesel engine uses a volume of $1.5 \times 10^4\text{ cm}^3$ of fuel per hour to produce a useful power output of $40\text{ kW}$. Assume that $34\text{ kJ}$ of energy is transferred to the engine when it uses $1.0\text{ cm}^3$ of fuel. What is the rate of transfer from the engine of energy that is wasted?
A $102\text{ kW}$
B $142\text{ kW}$
C $182\text{ kW}$
D $470\text{ kW}$
总输入功率 $P_\text{in} = \frac{1.5 \times 10^4 \times 34 \times 10^3\text{ J}}{3600\text{ s}} = 1.42 \times 10^5\text{ W} = 142\text{ kW}$。
浪费功率(损耗率) = 总输入功率 − 有用输出功率 = $142\text{ kW} - 40\text{ kW} = 102\text{ kW}$。
A small ball is projected into the air from horizontal ground. The diagram shows part of the path of the ball. The ball leaves the ground at point X with a kinetic energy of $8.0\text{ J}$. A short time later, the ball is at point Y where it has a kinetic energy of $3.5\text{ J}$. Point Y is at a vertical height of $8.8\text{ m}$ above the ground. Air resistance is negligible. What is the mass of the ball?
A $0.041\text{ kg}$
B $0.052\text{ kg}$
C $0.093\text{ kg}$
D $0.13\text{ kg}$
忽略阻力,机械能守恒:重力势能增加量等于动能减少量:
$$\Delta E_\text{p} = 8.0 - 3.5 = 4.5\text{ J} = mg\Delta h$$
$$m = \frac{4.5\text{ J}}{9.81 \times 8.8\text{ m}} = 0.052\text{ kg}$$
When the speed of an object is increased from $10\text{ m s}^{-1}$ to $20\text{ m s}^{-1}$, its kinetic energy increases by $E$. What is the increase in the kinetic energy of the object when its speed increases from $70\text{ m s}^{-1}$ to $80\text{ m s}^{-1}$?
A $E$
B $4E$
C $5E$
D $7E$
动能增量 $\Delta E_\text{k} \propto (v_2^2 - v_1^2)$:
从 $10$ 到 $20$:$\Delta E_{\text{k}1} \propto 20^2 - 10^2 = 400 - 100 = 300 = E$。
从 $70$ 到 $80$:$\Delta E_{\text{k}2} \propto 80^2 - 70^2 = 6400 - 4900 = 1500$。
两增量之比为 $\frac{1500}{300} = 5$,所以新增量为 $5E$。
A rollercoaster carriage of mass $280\text{ kg}$ travels over a raised section of track, as illustrated. At position X, the carriage has kinetic energy $16.1\text{ kJ}$. At position Y, the carriage has kinetic energy $1.3\text{ kJ}$. The length of track between X and Y is $23\text{ m}$. In moving from X to Y the carriage does $5.1\text{ kJ}$ of work against resistive forces.
(a)(i) Calculate the average resistive force acting on the carriage between X and Y. [2]
(a)(ii) Calculate the change in height $\Delta h$ between X and Y. [3]
(b) The carriage travels further along the track to point Z (which is at the same vertical height as X). State and explain whether the speed of the carriage at Z is greater than, less than or the same as the speed of the carriage at X. [1]
(a)(i) $F = \frac{W_\text{resist}}{d} = \frac{5.1 \times 10^3}{23}$ [C1]
$= 220\text{ N}$ [A1]
(a)(ii) 能量守恒:$\Delta E_\text{p} = E_\text{k,X} - E_\text{k,Y} - W_\text{resist} = 16.1 \times 10^3 - 1.3 \times 10^3 - 5.1 \times 10^3 = 9.7 \times 10^3\text{ J}$ [C1]
$\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h$ [C1]
$$\Delta h = \frac{9.7 \times 10^3}{280 \times 9.81} = 3.5\text{ m}$$ [A1]
(b) X 和 Z 高度相同(重力势能相同),但小车从 X 运动到 Z 的过程中一直在克服阻力做功(机械能持续转化为内能),所以 Z 处的动能小于 X 处,速度较小 (less than)。 [B1]
第六章 固体的形变 Deformation of solids
掌握固体形变的基本规律与术语(拉力、压力、伸长量、压缩量、比例极限);掌握胡克定律($F = kx$)及弹簧串并联;理解应力($\sigma = F/A$)、应变($\varepsilon = x/L$)与杨氏模量($E = \sigma/\varepsilon$)定义;掌握测定金属丝杨氏模量的实验方法、作图与误差分析;理解弹性形变、塑性形变与弹性极限;掌握力–伸长量图下功与弹性势能计算($E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}Fx = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$)。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
6.1 拉伸、压缩与胡克定律
6.1.1 基本术语
- 拉力 (tensile force):使物体伸长的一对方向相反、背离物体的外力。
- 压力 (compressive force):使物体缩短的一对方向相反、指向物体的外力。
- 负载 (load):施加在物体上使其发生形变的力。
- 伸长量 (extension) $x$:拉伸后的长度 − 原始长度;压缩量 (compression):原始长度 − 压缩后的长度。(注意:伸长量是差值,切勿误用为“拉伸后的总长度”)。
- 比例极限 (limit of proportionality):伸长量与所受负载成严格正比的最大负载点。超过此点,$F\text{–}x$ 图像不再是直线。
The extension of a spring (or wire) is proportional to the load (applied force), provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded: $F = kx$.
在比例极限内,弹簧(或金属丝)的伸长量与所受外力(负载)成正比。
The spring constant is the force per unit extension: $k = \frac{F}{x}$.
劲度系数 = 单位伸长量所需的力,单位为 $\text{N m}^{-1}$,等于 $F\text{–}x$ 图像中直线部分的斜率。$k$ 越大表示弹簧越“硬”;在相同负载下,$k$ 越小伸长量越大。
6.1.2 弹簧的串联与并联
$$\frac{1}{k_\text{总}} = \frac{1}{k_1} + \frac{1}{k_2}$$
两根相同的弹簧(劲度系数均为 $k$)串联:$k_\text{总} = \frac{k}{2}$。每根弹簧均承受全部外力,总伸长量加倍,整体变软。
$$k_\text{总} = k_1 + k_2$$
两根相同的弹簧并联:$k_\text{总} = 2k$。每根弹簧仅分担一半负载,总伸长量减半,整体变硬。
Identical springs are joined in four arrangements. Which arrangement has the same spring constant as a single spring?
A 两根串联
B 两根并联
C 两个两串联分支再并联(共 4 根)
D 两根并联后再与一根串联
A: 串联,劲度系数为 $\frac{k}{2}$;
B: 并联,劲度系数为 $2k$;
C: 每个支路包含 2 根串联弹簧,支路劲度系数为 $\frac{k}{2}$;两个相同支路并联,总劲度系数为 $\frac{k}{2} + \frac{k}{2} = k$,与单个弹簧相同!
D: 并联部分为 $2k$,与 $k$ 串联:$\frac{1}{k_\text{总}} = \frac{1}{2k} + \frac{1}{k} = \frac{3}{2k} \implies k_\text{总} = \frac{2}{3}k$。
6.2 应力、应变与杨氏模量
对于同种材料制成但粗细和原长不同的金属丝,其劲度系数 $k$ 是不同的(结构属性)。为了描述材料本身的力学形变本领(材料固有属性),引入应力 (stress)、应变 (strain) 与杨氏模量 (Young modulus)。
Stress is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area: $\sigma = \frac{F}{A}$.
应力 = 作用在物体单位横截面积上的力,单位为 $\text{Pa}$($1\text{ Pa} = 1\text{ N m}^{-2}$)。对于圆形横截面的金属丝,$A = \frac{\pi d^2}{4}$(其中 $d$ 为直径,计算时切勿将直径误当半径)。
Strain is the extension per unit original length: $\varepsilon = \frac{x}{L}$.
应变 = 伸长量 / 原始长度,是两个同类长度的比值,没有量纲和单位 (dimensionless)。
The Young modulus is the ratio of stress to strain (stress per unit strain): $E = \frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon}$.
杨氏模量 = 应力 / 应变,单位为 $\text{Pa}$。杨氏模量只在比例极限内有定义,其数值等于应力–应变图像直线部分的斜率。杨氏模量是材料自身的属性,与金属丝样品的长度、横截面粗细无关。
综合公式与物理意义:
$$E = \frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon} = \frac{F/A}{x/L} = \frac{FL}{Ax} \implies k = \frac{F}{x} = \frac{EA}{L}$$
由此式可知:对于同种材料($E$ 相同),金属丝越粗($A$ 越大)、越短($L$ 越小),其劲度系数 $k$ 越大。
常见材料典型值:钢 $2.0 \times 10^{11}\text{ Pa}$,铜 $1.3 \times 10^{11}\text{ Pa}$,橡胶约 $10^7\text{ Pa}$。
6.2.1 测定金属丝的杨氏模量实验 (Paper 2 & 5 核心实验)
实验测量步骤与注意事项:
- 原长测量:用米尺测量夹具到标记的原长 $L$(原长选用较长金属丝约 $2\text{ m}$,目的:使伸长量 $x$ 足够大,有效减小伸长量的百分比不确定度)。
- 直径测量:用千分尺(螺旋测微计,micrometer screw gauge)在金属丝不同位置、不同截面方向测量直径 $d$ 若干次取平均值,计算截面积 $A = \frac{\pi d^2}{4}$。
- 初读数:先悬挂一个小砝码将金属丝拉直(消除导线的弯曲 kinks),记下指针/标记对准米尺的初始刻度读数。
- 加载:逐次增加砝码,记录每次对应的负载 $F = mg$ 及标记的新位置,计算伸长量 $x$。
- 减载检验:实验结束前逐次卸去砝码,检查标记能否恢复到初始位置,确认实验过程未超出弹性极限。
- 作图与求杨氏模量:作 $F\text{–}x$ 关系图,取直线段求斜率 $\text{slope} = \frac{F}{x}$,则杨氏模量 $E = \text{slope} \times \frac{L}{A}$。
- 安全与进阶装置:实验操作必须佩戴护目镜 (goggles)(防止金属丝断裂弹伤眼睛);伸长量极微小时可用游标或行进显微镜 (travelling microscope) 读数;高精度双丝方案(Searle 装置)使用一根不加重的参照丝,可消除环境温度波动和支撑架微小形变带来的系统误差。
(a) Define the Young modulus of a material. [1]
(b) A long, thin thread of high-density polythene has a uniform cross-section. The thread is suspended from one end so that it hangs vertically. The thread has a mass of $0.018\text{ kg}$ and a cross-sectional area of $2.6 \times 10^{-6}\text{ m}^2$. High-density polythene has a density of $960\text{ kg m}^{-3}$ and a Young modulus of $8.0 \times 10^8\text{ Pa}$.
(i) Show that the length of the thread is $7.2\text{ m}$. [2]
(ii) Show that the stress at the top of the thread due to its own weight is $6.8 \times 10^4\text{ Pa}$. [2]
(iii) Suggest an explanation for the fact that the variation of stress with distance from the top of the thread is linear. [2]
(c) The thread is now laid horizontally on a frictionless bench. A tensile force is applied to the ends so that there is a uniform stress throughout the thread of $6.8 \times 10^4\text{ Pa}$.
(i) Calculate the extension of the thread. [2]
(ii) Calculate the elastic potential energy of the thread. [2]
(d) Suggest, with a reason, whether the total extension of the vertically suspended thread in (b) is less than, equal to or greater than the answer in (c)(i). [1]
(a) 应力与应变之比 (stress per unit strain)。 [B1]
(b)(i) $\rho = m/V \implies V = \frac{0.018}{960} = 1.875 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m}^3$ [C1]
$L = \frac{V}{A} = \frac{1.875 \times 10^{-5}}{2.6 \times 10^{-6}} = 7.2\text{ m}$ [A1]
(b)(ii) 顶端承受整根丝的全部自重:$\sigma = \frac{F}{A} = \frac{mg}{A}$ [C1]
$\sigma = \frac{0.018 \times 9.81}{2.6 \times 10^{-6}} = 6.8 \times 10^4\text{ Pa}$ [A1]
(b)(iii) 细丝上某点所承受的拉力等于该点下方全部丝段的重力,该重量随距顶端的距离增大而线性减少; [B1]
且细丝截面积均匀,因此截面应力正比于下方线段重量,所以呈线性变化。 [B1]
(c)(i) $\varepsilon = \frac{\sigma}{E} = \frac{x}{L} \implies x = \frac{\sigma L}{E}$ [C1]
$x = \frac{6.8 \times 10^4 \times 7.2}{8.0 \times 10^8} = 6.1 \times 10^{-4}\text{ m}$ [A1]
(c)(ii) $E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}Fx = \frac{1}{2}(\sigma A)x$ [C1]
$E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2} \times (6.8 \times 10^4 \times 2.6 \times 10^{-6}) \times (6.1 \times 10^{-4}) = 5.4 \times 10^{-5}\text{ J}$ [A1]
(d) 竖直悬挂时总伸长量小于 (less than) (c)(i) 的值。理由:竖直悬挂时除最顶端外,丝内其余各处的应力都严格小于 $6.8 \times 10^4\text{ Pa}$(平均应力仅为一半),所以平均应变更小,总伸长量更小。 [B1]
6.3 弹性形变与塑性形变
Elastic deformation: the object returns to its original shape and size when the load is removed.
Plastic deformation: the object does not return to its original shape and size when the load is removed (permanent deformation).
Elastic limit: the maximum load beyond which the deformation is no longer elastic (becomes plastic).
弹性形变:撤去外力(负载)后,物体能完全恢复到原来的形状和尺寸(伸长量回到零)。
塑性形变:撤去外力后不能完全恢复,保留永久形变(permanent extension)。
弹性极限:超过该负载点后,形变转变为塑性形变。弹性极限通常略高于(或重合于)比例极限。
典型材料的应力–应变特征对比:
• 脆性材料 (Brittle,如玻璃、陶瓷):仅在比例极限内发生极小的弹性形变,几乎没有塑性阶段,一旦应力达到极限立刻发生断裂脆断。
• 延展性材料 (Ductile,如铜、低碳钢):经历比例极限后有显著的塑性伸长阶段,可以被拉伸成细丝或锻打变形而不易折断。
• 聚合物材料 (Polymer,如橡胶):力与伸长量不成正比(非线性弹性),卸载时会产生滞后环(elastic hysteresis),形变做功部分转化为内能散发。
6.4 弹性势能 Elastic potential energy
拉伸物体时,外力克服内部弹性恢复力做功。由于拉力随伸长量增大而增大,外力所做的功等于 $F\text{–}x$ 图像下的面积。在比例极限内,图像为一条过原点的直线,图形为三角形,面积为:
$$E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}Fx = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$$
适用条件:仅适用于比例极限之内。若在弹性极限内,外力所做的功全部以弹性势能形式储存在材料中,卸载时能完全释放恢复;若拉伸超越弹性极限发生塑性形变,部分外力功将转化为材料内能,无法完全释放。
伸长量从 $x_1$ 增加到 $x_2$ 所需做的功对应于 $F\text{–}x$ 图上的梯形面积: $$W = \frac{1}{2}k\left(x_2^2 - x_1^2\right)$$ 切勿误算为 $\frac{1}{2}k(x_2 - x_1)^2$!例如:弹簧从 $0$ 拉伸到 $x$ 与从 $x$ 继续拉伸到 $2x$ 所做的功之比为 $1 : 3$(梯形面积是三角形面积的 3 倍)。
The graph shows the variation of the elastic potential energy $E_\text{p}$ stored in a spring with the square of the extension of the spring ($x^2$). The line passes through $(0, 0)$ and $(0.04\text{ m}^2, 0.48\text{ J})$. What is the spring constant of the spring?
A $0.0096\text{ N m}^{-1}$
B $6.0\text{ N m}^{-1}$
C $12\text{ N m}^{-1}$
D $24\text{ N m}^{-1}$
由 $E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$ 可知,$E_\text{p}\text{–}x^2$ 图像的斜率为 $\text{slope} = \frac{1}{2}k$。
斜率 $\text{slope} = \frac{0.48\text{ J}}{0.04\text{ m}^2} = 12\text{ J m}^{-2}$。
因此劲度系数 $k = 2 \times 12 = 24\text{ N m}^{-1}$。(选项 C 属于漏掉了系数 $\frac{1}{2}$ 的经典陷阱)。
6.5 本章小结与教学提示
建议 4 课时。学生在解题时最常见的三大错误:(1) 圆形截面积误用 $\pi d^2$ 而不是 $\frac{\pi d^2}{4}$;(2) 伸长量错填为最终拉伸长度;(3) 计算两伸长量间的弹性势能增量错误套用 $\frac{1}{2}k(\Delta x)^2$。测定金属丝杨氏模量实验是 Paper 2 与 Paper 5 的压轴实验高频考点,务必能准确默写出完整的 6 步实验过程(测量哪些量、分别选用什么仪器、为何选长金属丝、如何作图从斜率求杨氏模量)以及佩戴护目镜的安全要点。
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 胡克定律 | $F = kx$ | 比例极限内成立,$k$ 单位 $\text{N m}^{-1}$ |
| 串/并联弹簧 | $\frac{1}{k} = \frac{1}{k_1} + \frac{1}{k_2}$;$k = k_1 + k_2$ | 串联等效变软,并联等效变硬 |
| 应力 | $\sigma = \frac{F}{A}$ | 单位 $\text{Pa}$($\text{N m}^{-2}$),$A = \frac{\pi d^2}{4}$ |
| 应变 | $\varepsilon = \frac{x}{L}$ | 无量纲比值 |
| 杨氏模量 | $E = \frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon} = \frac{FL}{Ax}$ | 材料固有属性,只取决于材质 |
| 弹性势能 | $E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}Fx = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$ | $F\text{–}x$ 图像下的几何面积 |
6.6 历年真题精选与解析 Practice questions
A metal wire is stretched by a tensile force. The tensile force is increased. The volume of the wire remains constant and the limit of proportionality is not exceeded. Which quantity remains constant?
A the cross-sectional area of the wire
B the strain of the wire
C the stress in the wire
D the Young modulus of the metal
杨氏模量是材料自身的固有属性,只要温度不变且未超过比例极限,其数值保持不变。随着拉力增大,应力 $\sigma = F/A$ 和应变 $\varepsilon = x/L$ 均增大;由于体积保持不变而长度增大,横截面积必减小。
An initially unstretched spring is stretched within its limit of proportionality to a length of $80\text{ mm}$. The work done stretching the spring is $0.010\text{ J}$. The spring constant of the spring is $22.5\text{ N m}^{-1}$. What is the unstretched length of the spring?
A $30\text{ mm}$
B $50\text{ mm}$
C $60\text{ mm}$
D $110\text{ mm}$
由做功与弹性势能关系:$W = \frac{1}{2}kx^2 = 0.010\text{ J}$。
$$x = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 0.010}{22.5}} = 0.0298\text{ m} \approx 30\text{ mm}$$
伸长量为 $30\text{ mm}$,拉伸后总长为 $80\text{ mm}$,所以弹簧原长为 $80 - 30 = 50\text{ mm}$。
A spring obeys Hooke’s law. $X$ is the work done by the force in extending the spring from $0$ to $10\text{ mm}$. $Y$ is the work done by the force in extending the spring from $10\text{ mm}$ to $20\text{ mm}$. What is the ratio $X : Y$?
A $1 : 1$
B $1 : 2$
C $1 : 3$
D $1 : 4$
$X = \frac{1}{2}k(10)^2 = 50k$(三角形面积)。
$Y = \frac{1}{2}k(20^2 - 10^2) = \frac{1}{2}k(300) = 150k$(梯形面积)。
两做功比值 $X : Y = 50 : 150 = 1 : 3$。
Two springs X and Y are attached to a fixed surface. Blocks are attached to their free ends. The blocks hang vertically in equilibrium. The stretched lengths of X and Y are equal. Spring X has spring constant $k$, unstretched length $l$ and extension $0.20l$. Spring Y has spring constant $3.0k$ and extension $0.10l$. The mass of the block attached to spring X is $m$. What is the mass of the block attached to spring Y?
A $0.67m$
B $1.0m$
C $1.5m$
D $3.0m$
对弹簧 X:平衡时重力等于弹力 $mg = k(0.20l) = 0.20kl$。
对弹簧 Y:平衡时重力等于弹力 $Mg = (3.0k)(0.10l) = 0.30kl$。
所以质量比 $\frac{M}{m} = \frac{0.30}{0.20} = 1.5 \implies M = 1.5m$。
A force–extension graph for a spring shows that at extension $10 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}$, the force is $4.0\text{ N}$, and at extension $20 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}$, the force is $8.0\text{ N}$. What is the value of the work done to increase the extension of the spring from $10 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}$ to $20 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}$?
A $0.02\text{ J}$
B $0.06\text{ J}$
C $0.08\text{ J}$
D $0.12\text{ J}$
所做功等于该区间内的梯形面积:
$$W = \frac{1}{2}(4.0 + 8.0) \times (20 \times 10^{-3} - 10 \times 10^{-3}) = 6.0 \times 10 \times 10^{-3} = 0.060\text{ J}$$
(a) State Hooke’s law. [1]
(b) In an experiment to determine the spring constant of a spring X, a student measures the original length of the spring. The student then suspends an object in equilibrium from the spring and measures the final length of the spring. The spring does not extend beyond its limit of proportionality. The measurements taken by the student are:
• original length of spring X: $(2.1 \pm 0.1)\text{ cm}$
• final length of spring X: $(14.0 \pm 0.1)\text{ cm}$
• mass of suspended object: $(0.300 \pm 0.005)\text{ kg}$
Calculate:
(i) the extension, in cm, of spring X together with its absolute uncertainty [1]
(ii) the spring constant of spring X [3]
(iii) the percentage uncertainty in the value of the spring constant calculated in (b)(ii) due to the uncertainties in the measurements. [2]
(c) An identical object to the one in (b) is suspended in equilibrium from a spring Y that has a greater spring constant than spring X. Spring Y does not extend beyond its limit of proportionality. Describe and explain any difference in:
(i) the extension of the springs [1]
(ii) the elastic potential energy of the springs. [2]
(a) 伸长量与所施加的力成正比(在比例极限内)。 [B1]
(b)(i) 伸长量 $x = 14.0 - 2.1 = 11.9\text{ cm}$;绝对不确定度直接相加:$\Delta x = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2\text{ cm}$,结果记为 $(11.9 \pm 0.2)\text{ cm}$。 [A1]
(b)(ii) $k = \frac{F}{x} = \frac{mg}{x}$ [C1]
$k = \frac{0.300 \times 9.81}{0.119}$ [C1]
$k = 24.7\text{ N m}^{-1}$ [A1]
(b)(iii) 百分比不确定度:$\frac{\Delta k}{k} = \frac{\Delta x}{x} + \frac{\Delta m}{m} = \frac{0.2}{11.9} + \frac{0.005}{0.300} = 1.68\% + 1.67\%$ [C1]
$= 3\%$(或 $3.3\%$, $3.4\%$) [A1]
(c)(i) 弹簧 Y 的伸长量较小:所受悬挂物拉力相同,而劲度系数较大($x = F/k$)。 [B1]
(c)(ii) 弹簧 Y 中储存的弹性势能较小; [B1]
解释:拉力 $F$ 相同而伸长量 $x$ 较小,由 $E_\text{p} = \frac{1}{2}Fx$(或 $E_\text{p} = \frac{F^2}{2k}$,因 $k$ 位于分母)可知弹性势能更小。 [B1]
第七章 波 Waves
掌握行波本质与传递能量特征;熟练掌握描述波的物理量(位移、振幅、周期、频率、波长、波速、相位差);掌握位移–距离图与位移–时间图的解读与质点振动方向判断;掌握示波器(CRO)时基与 y 增益测定波形;推导波动方程($v = f\lambda$);理解波的强度与振幅平方关系($I \propto A^2$);深入对比横波与纵波;掌握声波多普勒效应公式与计算($f_\text{o} = f_\text{s} \frac{v}{v \pm v_\text{s}}$);熟记电磁波谱各波段波长与应用;理解偏振现象与马吕斯定律($I = I_0 \cos^2\theta$)。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
7.1 行波 Progressive waves
行波 (progressive wave) 是振动(机械扰动或电磁扰动)在介质或空间中的传播,它传递能量而不传递物质:介质中的各个质点只在各自的平衡位置附近往复振动,并不随波迁移。
A progressive wave is a wave that transfers energy from one place to another (in the direction of travel of the wave) without transferring matter.
行波沿波的传播方向把能量从一处传输到另一处,而介质本身不随波发生宏观净位移。
7.1.1 描述波的物理量与严格英文定义
| 物理术语 | 考纲英文定义 (Mark Scheme Exact Wording) | 中文解释与符号 |
|---|---|---|
| 位移 Displacement | distance (in a specified direction) of a point from its equilibrium position | 质点偏离平衡位置的距离(矢量),符号 $x$ 或 $y$,单位 $\text{m}$ |
| 振幅 Amplitude | maximum displacement (from the equilibrium position) | 质点离开平衡位置的最大位移,符号 $A$,单位 $\text{m}$ |
| 周期 Period | time for one complete oscillation (of a point on the wave) | 质点完成一次全振动所用的时间,符号 $T$,单位 $\text{s}$ |
| 频率 Frequency | number of oscillations per unit time | 单位时间内的全振动次数,$f = 1/T$,单位 $\text{Hz}$ |
| 波长 Wavelength | distance between two adjacent points on a wave that are in phase (e.g. crest to crest) | 相邻两个同相质点之间的距离(如相邻两波峰),符号 $\lambda$,单位 $\text{m}$ |
| 波速 Speed | distance travelled by the wave(front) per unit time | 波形(能量或波前)在单位时间内传播的距离,符号 $v$,单位 $\text{m s}^{-1}$ |
| 相位差 Phase diff. | difference in the stages of oscillation of two points, measured in degrees or radians | 两点振动步调的差异,一个完整周期对应 $360^\circ$ 或 $2\pi\text{ rad}$ |
7.1.2 波的两种核心图像对比与质点振动方向
两种图像形状几乎完全相同,但横坐标含义截然不同!位移–距离图上相邻两波峰间距是波长 $\lambda$;位移–时间图上相邻两波峰间距是周期 $T$。读图前第一步必须先看横轴物理量与单位。
• 空间相位差计算:波上相距 $\Delta x$ 的两点,相位差 $\phi = \frac{\Delta x}{\lambda} \times 360^\circ = \frac{2\pi\Delta x}{\lambda}$。相距整数个波长为同相 (in phase);相距半波长奇数倍为反相 (antiphase,相位差 $180^\circ$)。
• 判断质点振动方向(核心技巧):若波向右传播,某质点在下一微小时刻的位移等于它左边相邻质点此刻的位移(即“前一个点带动后一个点”,向右传看左侧,向左传看右侧)。
7.1.3 波动方程 $v = f\lambda$ 的推导与本质
推导过程:波在一个周期 $T$ 内,波形恰好在介质中向前匀速传播一个波长 $\lambda$ 的距离。由速度的基本定义: $$v = \frac{\text{distance}}{\text{time}} = \frac{\lambda}{T} = \lambda \times \frac{1}{T}$$ 由于频率 $f = \frac{1}{T}$,代入即得:
$$v = f\lambda$$
波动方程适用于所有机械波(横波与纵波)、水波及电磁波。核心定性规律:当波从一种介质跨介质进入另一种介质时,频率 $f$ 保持不变(由波源振动决定);波速 $v$ 由介质决定而发生改变,波长 $\lambda$ 随之成正比改变。
7.1.4 阴极射线示波器 (Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope, CRO) 读数规范
- 水平时基 (time-base):示波器荧光屏水平方向每格 (div) 所代表的时间跨度(如 $2\text{ ms div}^{-1}$)。周期 $T = \text{一个完整波形所占格数} \times \text{time-base}$,频率 $f = 1/T$。为减小相对不确定度,通常测量 $n$ 个周期的总格数再除以 $n$。
- 竖直增益 (y-gain):垂直方向每格代表的电压(如 $0.5\text{ V div}^{-1}$)。振幅 $A = \text{波峰到中心基线的垂直格数} \times \text{y-gain}$。
7.1.5 波的能量与强度
Intensity is the power transmitted per unit area (normal to the direction of wave travel): $I = \frac{P}{A}$.
波的强度 = 垂直于波传播方向的单位面积上传输的辐射功率,国际单位为 $\text{W m}^{-2}$。
$$I \propto A^2$$
波的强度正比于振幅的平方:振幅加倍,强度变为 4 倍;振幅变为 3 倍,强度变为 9 倍。
点波源向三维球面积均匀辐射时:$I = \frac{P}{4\pi r^2} \propto \frac{1}{r^2}$,由于 $I \propto A^2$,所以振幅与传播距离成反比:$A \propto \frac{1}{r}$。
A graph shows the displacement of each particle in a transverse wave against distance at one instant in time. The wave crests are located at $x = 5\text{ cm}$ and $x = 25\text{ cm}$. The speed of the wave is $1.6\text{ m s}^{-1}$. What is the frequency of the wave?
A $0.050\text{ Hz}$
B $0.080\text{ Hz}$
C $5.0\text{ Hz}$
D $8.0\text{ Hz}$
从位移–距离图读出波长:相邻两波峰间距 $\lambda = 25 - 5 = 20\text{ cm} = 0.20\text{ m}$。
由 $v = f\lambda$ 得频率 $f = \frac{v}{\lambda} = \frac{1.6\text{ m s}^{-1}}{0.20\text{ m}} = 8.0\text{ Hz}$。(选项 B 是忘记将厘米化为米)。
(a) State what is meant by a progressive wave. [1]
(b) A transverse progressive wave travels along a long string PQ from P to Q. At time $t = 0$, a horizontal distance of $36\text{ cm}$ contains two complete wave cycles, and the peak-to-trough vertical distance is $24\text{ cm}$. A point X is at its equilibrium position. The speed of the wave is $75\text{ cm s}^{-1}$.
(i) Show that the period of the wave is $0.24\text{ s}$. [2]
(ii) Sketch the variation with time $t$ of the displacement of point X between $t = 0$ and $t = 0.48\text{ s}$. (At $t=0$, point X is at equilibrium, and the wave crest is to its left travelling rightward). [3]
(a) 一种把能量从一处传输到另一处(沿波的传播方向)而不转移物质的波。 [B1]
(b)(i) $36\text{ cm}$ 包含两个完整波长:$\lambda = \frac{36}{2} = 18\text{ cm}$ [C1]
$T = \frac{\lambda}{v} = \frac{18\text{ cm}}{75\text{ cm s}^{-1}} = 0.24\text{ s}$ [A1]
(b)(ii) 振幅 $A = \frac{24\text{ cm}}{2} = 12\text{ cm}$。
波向右(P $\to$ Q)传播,X 左侧为波峰(向右移动将使 X 向上振动):正弦曲线从原点开始先向正方向; [B1]
最大峰值为 $+12\text{ cm}$,谷值为 $-12\text{ cm}$; [B1]
绘制完整两个周期:第一个周期在 $t = 0.24\text{ s}$ 结束,第二个周期在 $t = 0.48\text{ s}$ 结束。 [B1]
7.2 横波与纵波 Transverse and longitudinal waves
| 对比维度 | 横波 Transverse waves | 纵波 Longitudinal waves |
|---|---|---|
| 质点振动方向 | 垂直于能量传播方向 (perpendicular to) | 平行于能量传播方向 (parallel to) |
| 波的结构 | 交替的波峰 (crests) 与波谷 (troughs) | 交替的密部 (compressions) 与疏部 (rarefactions) |
| 典型代表 | 所有电磁波(光、微波等)、绳波、水表面波、地震 S 波 | 声波、超声波、拉伸弹簧纵波、地震 P 波 |
| 能否发生偏振 | 能发生偏振 (Can be polarised) | 不能发生偏振 (Cannot be polarised) |
| 共有波动性质 | 均满足 $v = f\lambda$,均能发生反射、折射、衍射与干涉叠加 | |
纵波的正弦图像解读 (Graphical representation of longitudinal waves)
纵波也可以用正弦曲线表示(纵轴表示质点偏离平衡位置的沿传播方向的位移,规定向右为正)。
• 密部中心 (centre of compression):在该点位移为零,且其左侧质点位移为正(向右靠拢)、其右侧质点位移为负(向左靠拢),两侧质点向该点聚集。
• 疏部中心 (centre of rarefaction):在该点位移为零,且其左侧质点位移为负(向左离开)、其右侧质点位移为正(向右离开),两侧质点背离该点扩散。
考试技巧:声波在气体或液体中是纵波,绝不能偏振;微波是电磁波,属于横波,可以偏振。
7.3 声波的多普勒效应 Doppler effect for sound waves
当声源相对于静止观察者发生相对运动时,观察者所接收到的声波频率与声源固有振动频率不同的现象称为多普勒效应 (Doppler effect)。
$$f_\text{o} = f_\text{s} \left(\frac{v}{v \pm v_\text{s}}\right)$$
其中 $v$ 为介质中的声速,$v_\text{s}$ 为声源移动速度,$f_\text{s}$ 为声源固有频率,$f_\text{o}$ 为观察者接收频率。
• 声源靠近观察者 (approaching):分母取“−”,$f_\text{o} = f_\text{s} \frac{v}{v - v_\text{s}} > f_\text{s}$(音调变尖);
• 声源远离观察者 (receding):分母取“+”,$f_\text{o} = f_\text{s} \frac{v}{v + v_\text{s}} < f_\text{s}$(音调变低)。
推导核心:在声源发出相邻两个波峰的周期 $T_\text{s}$ 内,声源向前移动了距离 $v_\text{s}T_\text{s}$,使前方观察波长变为 $\lambda_\text{o} = vT_\text{s} - v_\text{s}T_\text{s} = (v - v_\text{s})T_\text{s}$。因声速 $v$ 由介质决定不变,接收频率 $f_\text{o} = \frac{v}{\lambda_\text{o}} = \frac{v}{(v - v_\text{s})T_\text{s}} = f_\text{s} \frac{v}{v - v_\text{s}}$。
The siren on an emergency vehicle emits a sound of constant frequency $1100\text{ Hz}$. The driver in a stationary car hears the sound at a frequency of $1000\text{ Hz}$. The speed of sound in air is $340\text{ m s}^{-1}$. What is the velocity of the emergency vehicle?
A $31\text{ m s}^{-1}$ away from the stationary car
B $34\text{ m s}^{-1}$ away from the stationary car
C $31\text{ m s}^{-1}$ towards the stationary car
D $34\text{ m s}^{-1}$ towards the stationary car
观察者接收到的频率 $1000\text{ Hz} < 1100\text{ Hz}$,频率降低,表明声源正在远离 (away from) 观察者。
代入公式(分母取正号):
$$1000 = 1100 \times \frac{340}{340 + v_\text{s}} \implies 340 + v_\text{s} = 374 \implies v_\text{s} = 34\text{ m s}^{-1}$$
7.4 电磁波谱 Electromagnetic spectrum
所有电磁波均为由相互垂直的周期性振荡电场和磁场所构成的横波。在自由空间(真空中)传播时,传播速度完全相同,均为光速: $$c = 3.00 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}$$ 电磁波不需要任何物质介质作为媒介,均能在真空中传播,并且都能发生偏振。
| 波谱区域 Region | 真空中典型波长范围 $\lambda$ | 典型来源与应用 |
|---|---|---|
| $\gamma$ 射线 Gamma-rays | $< 10^{-11}\text{ m}$ | 放射性核衰变;医学放疗、杀菌消毒 |
| X 射线 X-rays | $10^{-11}\text{ m} \sim 10^{-8}\text{ m}$ | 高能电子轰击金属靶(X 光管);医学骨骼透视成像 |
| 紫外线 Ultraviolet (UV) | $10^{-8}\text{ m} \sim 4 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}$ | 太阳辐射、紫外灯;灭菌、荧光防伪检验 |
| 可见光 Visible light | $400\text{ nm} \sim 700\text{ nm}$ | 人眼可见范围:紫光约 $400\text{ nm} \to$ 红光约 $700\text{ nm}$ |
| 红外线 Infrared (IR) | $7 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m} \sim 10^{-3}\text{ m}$ | 热物体热辐射;家用遥控器、红外热成像仪、光纤通信 |
| 微波 Microwaves | $10^{-3}\text{ m} \sim 10^{-1}\text{ m}$ | 微波炉加热(水分子共振吸收)、手机移动通信、雷达 |
| 无线电波 Radio waves | $> 10^{-1}\text{ m}$ | LC 振荡天线;调频/调幅无线广播、电视广播、天文射电 |
数量级记忆技巧:从 $\gamma$ 射线到无线电波,波长单调递增,频率与光子能量单调递减。X 射线典型波长 $\sim 10^{-10}\text{ m}$(相当于一个原子大小 $0.1\text{ nm}$);可见光 $\sim 5 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}$;微波 $\sim \text{cm}$ 数量级;无线电波 $\ge \text{m}$。题目给出频率时,先由 $\lambda = c/f$ 算出波长再判定波谱区域。
7.5 偏振 Polarisation
A transverse wave is (plane) polarised if its oscillations are in one direction only, in a plane normal to the direction of propagation (energy transfer).
横波的振动只限于(与传播方向垂直的平面内的)单一方向时,称为平面偏振波。偏振是横波特有的现象,纵波(振动方向与传播方向完全平行)绝不能偏振。偏振现象的发现决定性地证明了光是一种横波。
$$I = I_0 \cos^2\theta$$
其中 $I_0$ 为入射平面偏振波的初始强度,$\theta$ 为入射偏振方向与偏振片透振轴 (transmission axis) 之间的夹角。
推导原理:入射光振幅为 $A_0$,透射振幅为沿透振轴的投影分量 $A = A_0\cos\theta$;垂直于透振轴的分量被偏振材料完全吸收。因光强正比于振幅平方 $I \propto A^2$,所以透射光强为 $I = I_0\cos^2\theta$。
• $\theta = 0^\circ$:透振轴平行于偏振方向,光波 $100\%$ 全部通过;
• $\theta = 90^\circ$:透振轴垂直于偏振方向(正交 crossed),透射光强为零;
• 偏振片旋转 $360^\circ$,透射光强将呈现周期为 $180^\circ$ 的正弦平方曲线,经历 2 次最大值与 2 次零值。
• 多片偏振片串联:按光路传播次序逐片连续相乘,每次代入的 $\theta$ 为当前偏振片透振轴与前一片透振轴之间的夹角!例如在两个正交偏振片之间插入一片 $45^\circ$ 的偏振片,最终反而会有光通过:$I = I_0 \cos^2 45^\circ \cos^2 45^\circ = I_0 \times \frac{1}{2} \times \frac{1}{2} = \frac{I_0}{4}$。
A vertically polarised electromagnetic wave has an intensity of $3.2 \times 10^4\text{ W m}^{-2}$. The wave is incident on a polarising filter that has a transmission axis at an angle $\theta$ to the vertical. The transmitted wave has an intensity of $2.5 \times 10^4\text{ W m}^{-2}$. What is $\theta$?
A $28^\circ$
B $39^\circ$
C $52^\circ$
D $62^\circ$
由马吕斯定律 $I = I_0\cos^2\theta$:
$$\cos^2\theta = \frac{2.5 \times 10^4}{3.2 \times 10^4} = 0.781 \implies \cos\theta = \sqrt{0.781} = 0.884$$
$$\theta = \arccos(0.884) = 28^\circ$$
(选项 B 是误漏了平方开方直接计算 $\arccos(0.781) = 39^\circ$ 的典型错误)。
7.6 本章小结与教学提示
建议 5 课时。学生常见易错点:(1) 混淆两种波形图的横轴,务必提醒先看横轴物理量是位置还是时间;(2) 多普勒效应公式中的正负号判断——牢记“相对靠近频率必然升高、相对远离频率必然降低”,用于快速检查符号;(3) 马吕斯定律中的 $\theta$ 必须是入射偏振方向与当前偏振片透振轴之间的夹角,若遇到多片串联偏振片,务必逐片递推计算;(4) 强调波的强度正比于振幅平方 $I \propto A^2$,选择题中常与受照面积变化结合考查(例如振幅变为 3 倍同时受照面积变为 3 倍,所接收的总功率将变为 $3^2 \times 3 = 27$ 倍)。
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 波动方程 | $v = f\lambda$,$f = 1/T$ | 频率由波源决定,跨介质保持不变 |
| 空间相位差 | $\phi = \frac{\Delta x}{\lambda} \times 360^\circ$ | 相距 $\lambda$ 同相,相距 $\lambda/2$ 反相 |
| 波的强度 | $I = \frac{P}{A}$,$I \propto A^2$ | 点源球面波 $I \propto 1/r^2$,$A \propto 1/r$ |
| 多普勒效应 | $f_\text{o} = f_\text{s} \left(\frac{v}{v \pm v_\text{s}}\right)$ | 声源远离取“+”,声源靠近取“−” |
| 真空中光速 | $c = 3.00 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}$ | 所有电磁波在真空中速度相同 |
| 马吕斯定律 | $I = I_0 \cos^2\theta$ | 入射波必须为平面偏振波 |
7.7 历年真题精选与解析 Practice questions
A wave is incident on a surface of area $S$ placed perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave. The wave has amplitude $R$ and the power incident on the surface is $P$. The amplitude of the wave is increased to $3R$ and the wave is now incident normally on a surface of area $3S$. What is the power incident on the surface of area $3S$?
A $P$
B $3P$
C $9P$
D $27P$
波的强度正比于振幅平方 $I \propto R^2$:振幅变为 $3R$ 时,强度增大为原来的 $3^2 = 9$ 倍。
功率 = 强度 × 截面积:受照面积变为 $3S$,所以总入射功率变为原来的 $9 \times 3 = 27$ 倍。
Plane polarised light of intensity $I$ is incident normally on a set of polarising filters. The transmission axis of the first filter is at $30^\circ$ to the plane of polarisation of the incident light. The transmission axis of each successive filter is at $30^\circ$ to the transmission axis of the previous filter. The intensity of the light emerging from the final filter is $0.24I$. How many polarising filters are in the set?
A $3$
B $5$
C $6$
D $10$
光束每通过一片偏振片,光强乘以前后透振轴夹角的余弦平方:$\cos^2 30^\circ = (\sqrt{3}/2)^2 = 0.75$。
设共有 $n$ 片偏振片,则 $(0.75)^n = 0.24$。
取对数求解:$n = \frac{\lg 0.24}{\lg 0.75} = \frac{-0.6198}{-0.1249} = 4.96 \approx 5$ 片。
A police car has a two-tone siren emitting sound of frequencies of $700\text{ Hz}$ and $1000\text{ Hz}$. The police car is travelling at a speed of $40.0\text{ m s}^{-1}$ towards a stationary observer. The speed of sound in the air is $340\text{ m s}^{-1}$. What is the difference between the two frequencies of the sound that is heard by the observer?
A $268\text{ Hz}$
B $300\text{ Hz}$
C $335\text{ Hz}$
D $340\text{ Hz}$
警车靠近静止观察者,多普勒倍率因子为:
$$\text{factor} = \frac{v}{v - v_\text{s}} = \frac{340}{340 - 40} = \frac{340}{300} = 1.1333$$
两声源频率之差 $\Delta f_\text{s} = 1000 - 700 = 300\text{ Hz}$。
观察者所听到的频率差同样乘以该多普勒因子:$\Delta f_\text{o} = 300 \times 1.1333 = 340\text{ Hz}$。
An object is floating in water through which a progressive wave is passing. In time $t$, the object moves from maximum displacement at a peak of the wave to minimum displacement at a trough and then back to maximum displacement again. Through which vertical distance does the object move in time $t$?
A one wavelength
B twice the wavelength
C twice the amplitude
D four times the amplitude
波传递能量而不传递物质,水面浮子仅在竖直方向做往复振动,不随波向前移动。从波峰移动到波谷,竖直路程为 $2A$;再由波谷返回波峰,竖直路程又为 $2A$;在一个周期 $t$ 内通过的总竖直路程为 $4A$(四倍振幅)。
An electromagnetic wave has a frequency of $3.3 \times 10^{14}\text{ Hz}$. Which principal region of the electromagnetic spectrum is this wave in?
A infrared
B visible light
C ultraviolet
D X-ray
计算真空中的波长:
$$\lambda = \frac{c}{f} = \frac{3.00 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}}{3.3 \times 10^{14}\text{ Hz}} = 9.1 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m} = 910\text{ nm}$$
由于可见光范围为 $400\text{ nm} \sim 700\text{ nm}$,该波长大于 $700\text{ nm}$ 且在微波之前,严格属于红外线 (infrared) 区域。
A beam of vertically polarised light of intensity $I_0$ is incident normally on a polarising filter. The transmission axis of the filter is at an angle of $60^\circ$ to the vertical. The transmitted light beam is then incident normally on a second polarising filter. The transmission axis of the second filter is perpendicular to the vertical (horizontal). The intensity of the light beam that emerges from the second filter is $I_\text{T}$. What is the ratio $I_\text{T} / I_0$?
A $0$
B $0.19$
C $0.25$
D $0.43$
通过第一片滤光片:透振轴与入射竖直偏振方向夹角为 $60^\circ$,由马吕斯定律:
$$I_1 = I_0 \cos^2 60^\circ = I_0 \times (0.5)^2 = 0.25 I_0$$
出射光为与竖直方向成 $60^\circ$ 的平面偏振光。
通过第二片滤光片:第二片透振轴沿水平方向(与竖直方向成 $90^\circ$),因此与第一片透振轴的夹角为 $\theta_2 = 90^\circ - 60^\circ = 30^\circ$:
$$I_\text{T} = I_1 \cos^2 30^\circ = 0.25 I_0 \times \left(\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\right)^2 = 0.25 I_0 \times 0.75 = 0.1875 I_0 \approx 0.19 I_0$$
第八章 叠加 Superposition
深刻理解波的叠加原理(位移矢量和);掌握驻波的形成机制(反射、同频反向行波叠加)、作图法与波节波腹特征;对比行波与驻波在能量、振幅和相位上的本质差异;掌握弦线、微波及空气柱(一端闭与两端开)驻波实验;掌握波的衍射条件及狭缝宽度与波长的定性关系;深入理解相干波条件(恒定相位差)与双源干涉明暗条纹判定;熟练运用杨氏双缝干涉公式($\lambda = \frac{ax}{D}$);掌握衍射光栅方程($d\sin\theta = n\lambda$)、最高级数判定及光栅测波长实验方案。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
8.1 叠加原理 Principle of superposition
When two (or more) waves meet at a point, the resultant displacement is the sum of the displacements of the individual waves.
两列(或多列)波在某点相遇时,该点的合位移等于各列波单独引起的位移之矢量和(代数和)。
• 叠加是位移相加 ($y = y_1 + y_2$),绝不是振幅、强度或频率直接相加!
• 同相相遇(相长干涉 Constructive superposition):两列波同向位移叠加,合振幅最大 $A_\text{max} = A_1 + A_2$;
• 反相相遇(相消干涉 Destructive superposition):两列波反向位移抵消,合振幅最小 $A_\text{min} = |A_1 - A_2|$。当两列波振幅相等 ($A_1 = A_2$) 时,合位移瞬间及振幅恒等于零。
8.2 驻波 Stationary waves
8.2.1 驻波的形成机制与作图法解释
当两列频率(波长)相同、振幅相近、沿相反方向传播的行波相遇时,叠加形成驻波 (stationary / standing wave)。实际物理实验中,驻波通常由一列入射行波与它在固定端或界面处反射所形成的反向行波叠加而成。
Node (波节): a point on a stationary wave where the amplitude is zero (always).
Antinode (波腹): a point on a stationary wave where the amplitude is maximum.
• 相邻两波节(或相邻两波腹)之间的距离等于半波长 $\frac{\lambda}{2}$;
• 相邻波节与波腹之间的距离等于四分之一波长 $\frac{\lambda}{4}$。
8.2.2 驻波与行波的全面对比 (CIE 核心考点)
| 物理特征 | 行波 Progressive wave | 驻波 Stationary wave |
|---|---|---|
| 能量传输 | 沿波的传播方向向前传递能量 | 不传递能量(能量被局域储存在波腹与波节之间) |
| 振幅特征 | 无衰减时所有质点振幅相同 | 随空间位置变化:波节振幅恒为 0,波腹振幅最大 ($2A$) |
| 相位关系 | 一个波长内各质点振动相位连续变化 | 相邻两波节之间所有质点同相;跨过一个波节相位突变 $180^\circ$ (反相) |
| 波长定义 | 相邻两个同相质点间的空间距离 | 相邻两个波节(或波腹)间距的 2 倍 |
| 振动频率 | 所有质点频率相同 | 除波节(位移恒为零)外,其余所有质点振动频率相同 |
8.2.3 演示驻波的三大经典实验系统
一端连信号源振动发生器,另一端跨过滑轮悬挂重物(固定端)。入射波在固定端反射。
• 边界条件:两端均必须为波节 (Node);
• 谐波规律:弦长必须满足 $L = n \frac{\lambda}{2}$($n$ 为环/节段数,也是内部波节数加 1);
• 固有共振频率:$f_n = n \frac{v}{2L}$ ($n = 1, 2, 3,\dots$)。
微波发射器正对金属反射板,微波在金属板表面反射叠加形成驻波。
• 边界条件:金属板表面电场为零,必为波节 (Node);
• 测量方案:微波探测器沿两板连线移动,接收信号交替出现最大值(波腹)和最小值(波节);
• 相邻极小值间距为 $\frac{\lambda}{2}$。平均极小间距 $\times 2 = \lambda$。
扬声器在管口发声,声波在封闭水面或敞开端反射。
• 闭端(水面/墙):空气分子无法振动,为位移波节 (Node);
• 开端(管口):空气分子自由振动,为位移波腹 (Antinode);
• 一端闭管:只能形成奇数次谐波 $L = (2n-1)\frac{\lambda}{4}$;共鸣管实验相邻两次共鸣管长之差 $L_2 - L_1 = \frac{\lambda}{2}$,可消除端点修正误差。
A string is stretched between a vibration generator and a fixed point. When the vibration generator is vibrating at a frequency $f$, a stationary wave with five nodes is created on the string. There is a node at the end of the string that is attached to the vibration generator. The frequency of vibration of the vibration generator is slowly increased. What is the next frequency that produces a stationary wave on the string?
A $1.25f$
B $1.50f$
C $1.75f$
D $2.00f$
弦上有 5 个波节(包含两端),说明内部有 3 个波节,弦被均分为 4 个“环”(loops):
$$L = 4 \times \frac{\lambda_1}{2} = 2\lambda_1 \implies f_1 = \frac{4v}{2L} = f$$
频率缓慢增加,下一个更高谐波包含 5 个环(6 个波节):
$$L = 5 \times \frac{\lambda_2}{2} \implies f_2 = \frac{5v}{2L} = \frac{5}{4}f = 1.25f$$
A microwave source is placed at position X. A shiny metal sheet is placed at position Y that is a distance of $0.48\text{ m}$ from X. The microwaves are reflected back from the metal sheet towards the source. A microwave detector is moved from X to Y and all positions of minimum microwave intensity are recorded. Intensity minima were detected at X and Y and also at 15 positions in between X and Y. The speed of the microwaves is $3.0 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}$. What is the frequency of the microwaves emitted by the source?
A $4.7 \times 10^9\text{ Hz}$
B $5.0 \times 10^9\text{ Hz}$
C $9.4 \times 10^9\text{ Hz}$
D $1.0 \times 10^{10}\text{ Hz}$
极小值对应波节。X、Y 处各有一个波节,中间有 15 个波节,总共有 $1 + 15 + 1 = 17$ 个波节。
17 个波节之间包含 16 个半波长间隔:
$$16 \times \frac{\lambda}{2} = 0.48\text{ m} \implies 8\lambda = 0.48 \implies \lambda = 0.060\text{ m}$$
由波动方程计算发射频率:
$$f = \frac{c}{\lambda} = \frac{3.0 \times 10^8\text{ m s}^{-1}}{0.060\text{ m}} = 5.0 \times 10^9\text{ Hz}$$
(选项 A 是错误地除以 17 个间隔)。
8.3 衍射 Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it passes through a gap or around the edge of an obstacle.
波通过狭缝或绕过障碍物边缘时偏离直线传播而向周围空间展开的现象。在衍射发生的前后,波的波长 $\lambda$、频率 $f$、波速 $v$ 保持完全不变。
衍射显著性条件与定性规律 (Gap width vs Wavelength)
- 缝宽与波长相近 ($\text{gap width} \approx \lambda$):衍射现象最为显著,透过的波前呈完整圆弧形向外扩散;
- 缝宽远大于波长 ($\text{gap width} \gg \lambda$):波几乎完全沿直线向前传播,仅在阴影边缘有微弱弯曲;
- 衍射扩散程度取决于比值 $\frac{\lambda}{\text{gap width}}$:波长越长、缝越窄,衍射越显著;反之缝变宽或波长变短,衍射减弱;
- 生活实例对比:人声声波($\lambda \sim 1\text{ m}$)与门框尺寸相当,能绕过门窗扩散,因此“隔墙有耳”;可见光($\lambda \sim 5 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}$)比门缝小六个数量级,直进性显著,因而无法拐弯绕入房间。
8.4 干涉与杨氏双缝实验 Interference & Young's Experiment
Interference (干涉): the superposition of two (or more) coherent waves to give a resultant wave whose intensity (amplitude) varies with position.
Coherence (相干): two waves (sources) are coherent if they have a constant phase difference (and therefore the same frequency).
相干的核心定义是恒定的相位差 (constant phase difference),由其定义必然推导出两列波的频率必须完全相同。
8.4.1 观察到稳定明暗干涉条纹的必备条件
- 两列波源必须相干 (coherent):具有恒定的相位差与相同频率;
- 两列波必须为同类型波;若为横波,其偏振方向必须平行(或在振动平面内有平行分量);
- 两列波的振幅应大致相等(相消处方可接近全黑,保证干涉明暗条纹对比度高);
- 两列波在空间中必须发生有效重叠 (overlap)(通常需要借助狭缝的衍射展开波前实现光束相遇)。
8.4.2 光程差与明暗条纹条件 (Path difference conditions)
设两同相点波源到空间某点的光程差(几何路程差)为 $\Delta = |S_1P - S_2P|$:
| 干涉类型 | 光程差条件 (Path difference $\Delta$) | 相位差条件 | 光斑/条纹表现 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 相长干涉 Constructive | $\Delta = n\lambda \quad (n = 0, 1, 2,\dots)$ | $0, 2\pi, 4\pi,\dots$ (同相) | 极大值、亮纹 (Bright fringe) |
| 相消干涉 Destructive | $\Delta = \left(n + \frac{1}{2}\right)\lambda \quad (n = 0, 1, 2,\dots)$ | $\pi, 3\pi, 5\pi,\dots$ (反相) | 极小值、暗纹 (Dark fringe) |
8.4.3 杨氏双缝干涉公式 Young’s double-slit equation
$$\lambda = \frac{ax}{D} \iff x = \frac{\lambda D}{a}$$
• $a$:双缝中心间距 (slit separation);
• $x$:相邻亮纹或相邻暗纹的中心间距 (fringe separation);
• $D$:双缝到光屏的垂直距离 (slit-to-screen distance),适用前提条件为 $D \gg a$。
定性调控规律:增大光屏距离 $D$、减小双缝间距 $a$、或换用更长波长的光(如红光波长大于蓝紫光),干涉条纹间距 $x$ 均会显著变宽。
实验不确定度控制:为减小读取条纹间距的百分比不确定度,实验中严禁用直尺测量单个条纹间距,必须用读数显微镜测量 $N$ 条亮纹之间的总跨度 $W$,再除以间隔数:$x = \frac{W}{N-1}$($N$ 条亮纹之间只有 $N-1$ 个间隔!)。
Two oscillating dippers A and B create progressive transverse water waves on the surface of a lake. Wave crests are solid lines and troughs are dashed lines. The dippers oscillate in phase with a frequency of $3.0\text{ Hz}$.
(a) State what is meant by a progressive wave. [1]
(b)(i) Calculate the period of the waves. [1]
(b)(ii) Point P is at distance $3.9\text{ m}$ from A and $2.4\text{ m}$ from B. At P, crest meets crest (P is on the 4th crest of A and 3rd crest of B). Determine the speed of the waves. [3]
(c)(i) A ball of mass $0.44\text{ kg}$ floats at P. The amplitude of vertical oscillation of the ball is $15\text{ cm}$. Calculate the difference in gravitational potential energy $\Delta E_\text{p}$ between its highest and lowest points. [3]
(c)(ii) The frequency of the dippers is increased to $4.0\text{ Hz}$ without changing their amplitude. State and explain whether the amplitude of oscillation of the ball increases, decreases or remains the same. [2]
(a) 沿波的传播方向传递能量(而不传递物质)的波。 [B1]
(b)(i) $T = \frac{1}{f} = \frac{1}{3.0} = 0.33\text{ s}$ [A1]
(b)(ii) P 处波峰与波峰相遇,且分别为第 4 个与第 3 个波峰,光程差对应一个波长:
$\lambda = 3.9 - 2.4 = 1.5\text{ m}$ [C1]
$v = f\lambda = 3.0 \times 1.5$ [C1]
$= 4.5\text{ m s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(c)(i) 浮子最高点与最低点的高度差等于 2 倍振幅:$\Delta h = 2 \times 0.15\text{ m} = 0.30\text{ m}$ [C1]
$\Delta E_\text{p} = mg\Delta h = 0.44 \times 9.81 \times 0.30$ [C1]
$= 1.3\text{ J}$ [A1]
(c)(ii) 频率变为 $4.0\text{ Hz}$ 后,波长变为 $\lambda' = \frac{v}{f'} = \frac{4.5}{4.0} = 1.125\text{ m}$。两源到 P 的路程差 $1.5\text{ m}$ 不再是波长的整数倍,两波在 P 处不再同相叠加; [B1]
因此合振幅减小 (decreases)。 [B1]
8.5 衍射光栅 The diffraction grating
衍射光栅是在平整玻璃或金属基片上刻有大量等间距平行狭缝的光学元件(通常每毫米刻数百条线)。平行单色光正入射时,从各狭缝衍射发出的次波在特定方向上发生多光束相长干涉,形成比双缝干涉更亮、谱线极窄且极其尖锐的亮斑(主极大)。
$$d\sin\theta = n\lambda$$
• $d$:相邻狭缝间距 (grating spacing / line separation),$d = \frac{1}{N}$,其中 $N$ 为每米狭缝刻线数(注意:若给出 $N = 500\text{ lines mm}^{-1}$,必须先换算为 $500 \times 10^3\text{ lines m}^{-1}$);
• $\theta$:第 $n$ 级衍射极大与中央零级亮纹(入射光方向)之间的衍射偏转角;
• $n$:衍射级数 (order of maximum),$n = 0, 1, 2, 3,\dots$;
• 最高衍射级数判定:因为物理上 $\sin\theta \le 1$($\theta \le 90^\circ$),所以理论最高级数为 $n_\text{max} = \left\lfloor \frac{d}{\lambda} \right\rfloor$(不超过 $d/\lambda$ 的最大整数;若 $d/\lambda$ 恰好为整数,由于 $90^\circ$ 沿光栅面平行出射无法投射到屏上,应扣减此级)。
• 屏上能观察到的总条纹数:$N_\text{total} = 2n_\text{max} + 1$(包含中央零级以及两侧对称的各级极大)。
白光照射光栅的衍射光谱 (White light diffraction)
• 中央零级 ($n=0$):所有波长的光程差均为 0,复合成白色亮线;
• 高级次 ($n \ge 1$):由 $d\sin\theta = n\lambda$ 可知,偏角 $\sin\theta \propto \lambda$。由于紫光波长最短($\sim 400\text{ nm}$),偏折角最小,靠近中央;红光波长最长($\sim 700\text{ nm}$),偏折角最大,远离中央(即内紫外红);
• 光谱重叠:在较高级次下,第 2 级红光的偏折角可能大于第 3 级紫光的偏折角,导致不同级次的光谱发生部分重叠。
A beam of light of wavelength $X$ is incident normally on a diffraction grating. The second-order intensity maxima are produced at an angle of $45^\circ$ to the direction of the incident beam. A replacement beam of light of a different wavelength $Y$ is now incident normally on the diffraction grating. This new wavelength also produces intensity maxima that are at an angle of $45^\circ$ to the direction of the incident beam. What is a possible value of the ratio $X/Y$?
A $0.25$
B $0.75$
C $1.25$
D $1.50$
两束光在同一衍射角 $45^\circ$ 处产生极大:
$$d\sin 45^\circ = 2X = nY \implies \frac{X}{Y} = \frac{n}{2}$$
其中 $n$ 为正整数,且由于波长不同 $X \ne Y$,故 $n \ne 2$。
可能比值为 $\frac{1}{2}=0.5$、$\frac{3}{2}=1.50$、$\frac{4}{2}=2.0\dots$ 选项中唯有 1.50(对应 $n = 3$)成立。
8.6 本章小结与教学提示
建议 6 课时,是 AS 物理中最概念化、考点最密集的章节之一。Paper 2 必背答题要点:
(1) 驻波形成的文字表述:必须答出“波在固定端/介面发生反射 (reflection)”、“两列频率与波长相同的波沿相反方向传播 (travel in opposite directions with same frequency/wavelength)”、“两波叠加产生驻波 (superposition)”;
(2) 相干波的核心定义:考官评分标准严格锁定“constant phase difference”(只写 same frequency 不得分,因为相同频率是相干的必然推论而非定义);
(3) 光栅刻线换算:务必纠正学生将 lines per mm 直接代入公式的习惯;求最高级数时切记 $\sin\theta \le 1$;
(4) 条纹间距读数:强调测量 $N$ 条亮纹总间距时除以 $(N-1)$,不可误除以 $N$。
| 物理量 / 核心关系 | 公式 | 重点说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 叠加原理 | $y = y_1 + y_2$ | 位移矢量叠加,不是振幅直接相加 |
| 驻波波长关系 | 节–节 = $\lambda/2$,节–腹 = $\lambda/4$ | 驻波不沿传播方向传递能量 |
| 两端固定弦 | $L = n \frac{\lambda}{2} \iff f_n = n \frac{v}{2L}$ | 两端必须为波节,$n$ 为环数 |
| 一端封闭管 | $L = (2n-1)\frac{\lambda}{4}$ | 闭端为位移波节,开端为位移波腹 |
| 相长 / 相消光程差 | $\Delta = n\lambda$ / $\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\lambda$ | 仅适用于波源同相时 |
| 双缝干涉公式 | $\lambda = \frac{ax}{D} \iff x = \frac{\lambda D}{a}$ | 要求 $D \gg a$;相邻条纹间距为 $x$ |
| 衍射光栅方程 | $d\sin\theta = n\lambda$ | $d = 1/N$;最高级数 $n_\text{max} = \lfloor d/\lambda \rfloor$ |
8.7 历年真题精选与解析 Practice questions
Green light of wavelength $550\text{ nm}$ passes through a double slit. This produces an interference pattern with a fringe spacing of $5.0\text{ cm}$ on a screen. Which changes to the experimental arrangement result in a fringe spacing of $2.5\text{ cm}$?
A slit separation doubled, distance between slits and screen unchanged
B slit separation unchanged, distance between slits and screen doubled
C slit separation halved, distance between slits and screen doubled
D slit separation doubled, distance between slits and screen halved
由双缝干涉公式 $x = \frac{\lambda D}{a}$:要使条纹间距 $x$ 从 $5.0\text{ cm}$ 减半至 $2.5\text{ cm}$,需使分母 $a$ 加倍(slit separation doubled)且分子 $D$ 保持不变(unchanged)。
Water waves diffract as they pass through a gap. Which combination produces the greatest amount of diffraction?
A wavelength $10^{-1}\text{ m}$, gap width $10^0\text{ m}$
B wavelength $10^{-1}\text{ m}$, gap width $10^{-2}\text{ m}$
C wavelength $10^0\text{ m}$, gap width $10^0\text{ m}$
D wavelength $10^0\text{ m}$, gap width $10^2\text{ m}$
衍射最显著的条件是狭缝宽度与波长相近 ($\text{gap width} \approx \lambda$)。在选项 C 中,缝宽为 $1.0\text{ m}$,波长亦为 $1.0\text{ m}$,二者完全匹配,产生最显著的圆弧形衍射展开。(B 选项缝宽远小于波长,波由于反射几乎无法穿透狭缝;A、D 缝宽远大于波长,衍射极弱)。
Light of wavelength $500\text{ nm}$ is incident normally on a double slit. A flat screen is placed at a distance of $3.5\text{ m}$ from the double slit. The distance from the centre of the first bright fringe to the centre of the tenth bright fringe is $22\text{ mm}$. What is the separation of the two slits?
A $0.080\text{ mm}$
B $0.35\text{ mm}$
C $0.72\text{ mm}$
D $0.80\text{ mm}$
从第 1 条亮纹到第 10 条亮纹之间包含 $10 - 1 = 9$ 个间距:
$$x = \frac{22\text{ mm}}{9} = 2.444\text{ mm} = 2.444 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}$$
由双缝干涉公式求解双缝间距 $a$:
$$a = \frac{\lambda D}{x} = \frac{500 \times 10^{-9}\text{ m} \times 3.5\text{ m}}{2.444 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m}} = 7.16 \times 10^{-4}\text{ m} \approx 0.72\text{ mm}$$
(选项 D 是误用 10 个间隔除以 22 的经典错误)。
Light of wavelength $400\text{ nm}$ passes normally through a diffraction grating with a line spacing of $2.0 \times 10^{-6}\text{ m}$ and forms a diffraction pattern on a screen. What is the angle $\alpha$ between the second-order and the fourth-order diffracted rays?
A $24^\circ$
B $30^\circ$
C $53^\circ$
D $77^\circ$
计算第 2 级极大偏转角 $\theta_2$:
$$\sin\theta_2 = \frac{2\lambda}{d} = \frac{2 \times 400 \times 10^{-9}}{2.0 \times 10^{-6}} = 0.40 \implies \theta_2 = 23.58^\circ$$
计算第 4 级极大偏转角 $\theta_4$:
$$\sin\theta_4 = \frac{4\lambda}{d} = \frac{4 \times 400 \times 10^{-9}}{2.0 \times 10^{-6}} = 0.80 \implies \theta_4 = 53.13^\circ$$
两衍射光束之间的夹角:
$$\alpha = \theta_4 - \theta_2 = 53.13^\circ - 23.58^\circ = 29.55^\circ \approx 30^\circ$$
A string is fixed to walls at ends P and Q. An oscillator causes transverse oscillations of the string of period $0.24\text{ s}$. The speed of waves on the string is $75\text{ cm s}^{-1}$. The distance between P and Q is $45\text{ cm}$.
(i) Explain how a stationary wave is formed on the string. [2]
(ii) The string is currently straight (displacement zero everywhere). Draw a solid line to show a possible appearance of the string at a time $0.060\text{ s}$ later. [2]
(iii) Draw a cross ($\times$) labelled N at one point on the string that is at a node, and a cross labelled A at one point that is at an antinode. [2]
(i) 波沿弦传播并在固定端(墙壁)发生反射; [B1]
入射波与反射波频率与波长相同、沿相反方向传播,两波叠加形成驻波。 [B1]
(ii) 波长 $\lambda = vT = 75\text{ cm s}^{-1} \times 0.24\text{ s} = 18\text{ cm}$。
弦长 $PQ = 45\text{ cm} = 2.5\lambda = 5 \times \frac{\lambda}{2}$,共包含 5 个环(半波长)。
时间差 $\Delta t = 0.060\text{ s} = \frac{T}{4}$,经历四分之一周期,弦由平衡位置到达最大位移状态。
图线特征:正弦包络波形,两端 P、Q 处位移为零; [B1]
在 P 与 Q 之间准确画出 5 个等间距的半波长环(每环宽度 $9\text{ cm}$)。 [B1]
(iii) 波节 N:标在两端点 P、Q 或距 P 为 $9\text{ cm}, 18\text{ cm}, 27\text{ cm}, 36\text{ cm}$ 的零位移点处; [B1]
波腹 A:标在相邻波节正中点(即距 P 为 $4.5\text{ cm}, 13.5\text{ cm}$ 等峰值处)。 [B1]
(a) For a progressive wave, state what is meant by: (i) period; (ii) amplitude. [2]
(b) A stretched string is fixed at both ends and made to vibrate with a frequency of $25\text{ Hz}$. A stationary wave is formed with three loops. The distance between the fixed ends is $0.96\text{ m}$.
(i) Draw a cross ($\times$) at the position of an antinode. [1]
(ii) Show that the speed of a progressive wave on the string is $16\text{ m s}^{-1}$. [3]
(iii) The frequency of the vibrations is increased to $30\text{ Hz}$. The speed does not change. State and explain whether a stationary wave is formed. [2]
(c) A beam of light of wavelength $4.5 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}$ is incident normally on a diffraction grating with $6.7 \times 10^5\text{ lines per metre}$. The angle formed between the central bright spot and the bright spot at position X is $37^\circ$.
(i) Calculate the order $n$ of the bright spot formed at X. [3]
(ii) The diffraction grating is replaced by a grating with fewer lines per metre. State whether the distance between adjacent bright spots on the screen increases, decreases or remains the same. [1]
(a)(i) 波上某一质点完成一次全振动所用的时间。 [B1]
(a)(ii) 质点偏离平衡位置的最大位移。 [B1]
(b)(i) 标在任一波峰或波谷顶点正上方(如距左端 $0.16\text{ m}$ 处)。 [B1]
(b)(ii) 弦上有 3 个环:$\lambda = 0.96 \times \frac{2}{3} = 0.64\text{ m}$ [M1]
$v = f\lambda = 25 \times 0.64$ [C1]
$= 16\text{ m s}^{-1}$ [A1]
(b)(iii) 频率变为 $30\text{ Hz}$ 时,波长 $\lambda' = \frac{16}{30} = 0.533\text{ m}$,半波长 $\frac{\lambda'}{2} = 0.267\text{ m}$;弦长 $0.96\text{ m}$ 不是半波长的整数倍($\frac{0.96}{0.267} = 3.6$),因此不能形成驻波。 [B1+B1]
(c)(i) 光栅间距 $d = \frac{1}{6.7 \times 10^5}\text{ m}$;由光栅方程 $d\sin\theta = n\lambda$:
$n = \frac{d\sin\theta}{\lambda} = \frac{(1/6.7 \times 10^5) \times \sin 37^\circ}{4.5 \times 10^{-7}}$ [C1+C1]
$= 2$(级数为 2) [A1]
(c)(ii) 减小 (decreases):每米刻线数减少 $\implies d$ 增大 $\implies \sin\theta = \frac{n\lambda}{d}$ 减小,相邻光斑偏折角更小,间距变小。 [B1]
第九章 电学 Electricity
深刻理解电流的微观与宏观本质(电荷载流子的定向流动与电荷量子化);掌握电流的微观表达式($I = Anvq$)及各参量的物理意义与量纲分析;准确区分电势差与电动势的能量转化方向(电能转化为其他形式能 vs 其他形式能转化为电能);熟练掌握电功率推导与不同电路连接下的公式优选策略;深刻理解欧姆定律的适用边界与电阻的严格物理定义;熟练绘制并物理剖析恒温金属导体、白炽灯及半导体二极管的 $I\text{--}V$ 特性曲线;掌握电阻率公式($R = \frac{\rho L}{A}$)及导线拉伸形变中的电阻变化规律;理解光敏电阻(LDR)与负温度系数热敏电阻(NTC)在微观载流子激发机制下的阻值变化特征。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
9.1 电流 Electric current
An electric current is a flow of charge carriers. Current is the rate of flow of charge: $I = \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta t}$.
电流是电荷载流子的定向流动,大小等于电荷的流动速率。电流是 SI 基本量,单位 ampere (A)。
• 载流子 (charge carriers):金属中是自由电子;电解液中是正负离子;半导体中是电子和空穴。
• 电荷的单位 coulomb:$1\text{ C} = 1\text{ A s}$,即 $1\text{ A}$ 电流在 $1\text{ s}$ 内通过某截面的电荷量。
• 电荷量子化 (quantisation of charge):任何带电体的电荷都是元电荷 $e = 1.60 \times 10^{-19}\text{ C}$ 的整数倍,$Q = \pm Ne$。所以 $2.4 \times 10^{-19}\text{ C}$ 这样的电荷不可能出现。
• 约定电流方向 (conventional current):从电源正极经外电路流向负极,与电子实际流动方向相反。
通过截面的电子数 $N = \frac{Q}{e} = \frac{It}{e}$。
9.1.1 微观表达式 $I = Anvq$
设导体截面积 $A$,单位体积内载流子数(数密度)$n$,每个载流子电荷 $q$,平均漂移速度 $v$。在 $\Delta t$ 内载流子移动 $L = v\Delta t$,通过截面的载流子都在体积 $AL$ 内:
$n$ 的单位是 $\text{m}^{-3}$。金属 $n \sim 10^{28}\text{ m}^{-3}$,漂移速度极小($\sim \text{mm s}^{-1}$)。同一导线中电流相同时,截面积越小的部分漂移速度越大;半导体 $n$ 小得多,同样电流下漂移速度大得多。
The diagram shows a metal block.
The block has sides of length $a$, $b$ and $c$ as shown, and its volume is $V$. Each charge carrier has a charge $-q$ and the number density of the charge carriers in the metal is $n$. It takes each charge carrier an average time of $t$ to pass through the block. What is an expression for the current $I$?
电流沿 $b$ 方向,截面积 $A = ac$,漂移速度 $v = b/t$。$I = Anvq = (ac)n\frac{b}{t}q = \frac{nqV}{t}$。(也可理解为:块中全部载流子 $nV$ 个、电荷 $nVq$,在时间 $t$ 内全部通过。)
9.2 电势差与电功率 Potential difference and electrical power
The potential difference (p.d.) across a component is the energy transferred (from electrical to other forms) per unit charge passing through it: $V = \frac{W}{Q}$.
电势差(电压):单位电荷通过元件时转化为其他形式的能量。单位 volt,1 V = 1 J C$^{-1}$。
推导:$P = \frac{W}{t} = \frac{VQ}{t} = VI$;再代入 $V = IR$ 得另两式。
选择公式的技巧:串联元件电流相同,比较功率用 $P = I^2R$(电阻大的功率大);并联元件电压相同,用 $P = V^2/R$(电阻小的功率大)。
9.3 电阻与电阻率 Resistance and resistivity
Resistance is the ratio of the potential difference across a component to the current in it: $R = \frac{V}{I}$.
电阻 = 两端电势差与通过电流之比,单位 ohm,1 $\Omega$ = 1 V A$^{-1}$。注意:$R = V/I$ 是电阻的定义,对任何元件在任何工作点都成立;而“$V \propto I$”才是欧姆定律。
For a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current in it is proportional to the potential difference across it.
恒温下金属导体中的电流与其两端电势差成正比。遵守欧姆定律的元件称为 ohmic conductor,其 $I\text{--}V$ 图是过原点的直线。
9.3.1 $I\text{--}V$ 特性曲线
三种关键元件的 $I\text{--}V$ 特性对比:
• 金属导体(恒温):过原点直线,电阻不变。
• 白炽灯:曲线逐渐变平(斜率减小)——电流增大,灯丝温度升高,金属离子晶格振动加剧,与自由电子碰撞更频繁,阻碍电子定向移动,电阻增大。正反向对称。(若画 $V\text{--}I$ 图,曲线则逐渐变陡。)
• 半导体二极管:反向几乎无电流(电阻极大);正向电压低于约 0.6V 时电流很小,超过后电流急剧增大(电阻迅速减小)。只允许电流单向通过。
从 $I\text{--}V$ 图求某点电阻:$R = V/I$ 用该点的坐标之比,不是该点切线斜率的倒数(除非是过原点直线)。
9.3.2 电阻率
$\rho$ 为电阻率 (resistivity),单位 $\Omega\text{ m}$,是材料的性质(随温度变化);$L$ 为长度;$A$ 为横截面积。
• 金属拉长(体积不变):长度变为 $k$ 倍,截面积变为 $1/k$,电阻变为 $k^2$ 倍。
• 直径变为 1/2(体积不变):$A$ 变为 $1/4$,$L$ 变为 4 倍,$R$ 变为 16 倍。
• 典型值:铜 $1.7 \times 10^{-8}\ \Omega\text{ m}$,镍铬合金 $1.1 \times 10^{-6}\ \Omega\text{ m}$。金属的电阻率随温度升高而增大。
9.3.3 光敏电阻与热敏电阻
• LDR(光敏电阻):光强增大,半导体中被激发的载流子增多,电阻减小。
• NTC 热敏电阻:温度升高,载流子数目增多,电阻减小(考纲假定热敏电阻均为负温度系数 negative temperature coefficient)。
A nichrome wire of cross-sectional area $5.7 \times 10^{-8}\text{ m}^2$ is connected to a power supply. The potential difference (p.d.) across the wire is $230\text{ V}$. The power dissipated in the wire is $1.0\text{ kW}$.
(a) Show that the resistance of the wire is $53\ \Omega$. [2]
(b) The resistivity of nichrome is $1.3 \times 10^{-6}\ \Omega\text{ m}$. Calculate the length of the wire. [2]
(c) The average drift speed of the charge carriers (free electrons) in the nichrome wire is $5.4 \times 10^{-3}\text{ m s}^{-1}$. Calculate the number density of charge carriers of nichrome. [3]
(a) $P = \frac{V^2}{R}$ [C1]
$R = \frac{V^2}{P} = \frac{230^2}{1000} = 53\ \Omega$ [A1]
(b) $R = \frac{\rho L}{A} \implies L = \frac{RA}{\rho} = \frac{53 \times 5.7 \times 10^{-8}}{1.3 \times 10^{-6}}$ [C1]
$= 2.3\text{ m}$ [A1]
(c) $n = \frac{I}{Aqv}$,其中 $I = \frac{P}{V} = \frac{1000}{230} = 4.35\text{ A}$ [C1]
$n = \frac{4.35}{5.7 \times 10^{-8} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19} \times 5.4 \times 10^{-3}}$ [C1]
$= 8.8 \times 10^{28}\text{ m}^{-3}$ [A1]
A metal wire with circular cross-section has length $L$ and diameter $d$. The resistance of the wire is $R$. The wire is now melted and reformed into a new wire of diameter $0.50d$. The volume of the wire is unchanged. What is the resistance of the new wire?
直径减半 $\implies$ 截面积 $A' = A/4$;体积不变 $\implies L' = 4L$。$R' = \frac{\rho (4L)}{A/4} = 16R$。
The $I\text{--}V$ characteristic of an electrical component X is shown in Figure 5.1.
(a) State the name of electrical component X. [1]
(b) A metallic conductor has a constant resistance of $40\ \Omega$. On Figure 5.1, sketch the $I\text{--}V$ characteristic of this conductor between $V = 0$ and $V = 0.80\text{ V}$. [2]
(c) Component X is connected in series with a resistor of resistance $20\ \Omega$, an ammeter and a cell. The current in the ammeter is $5.0\text{ mA}$ and the cell has negligible internal resistance. Show that the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the cell is $0.80\text{ V}$. [3]
(d) The terminals of the cell in (c) are now reversed without making any other changes to the circuit. State the reading on the ammeter. [1]
(e) The resistor of resistance $20\ \Omega$ and component X are now connected in parallel to the $0.80\text{ V}$ cell, with an ammeter measuring the total current. The current in component X is not negligible. Use Figure 5.1 to determine the current in the ammeter. [3]
(a) (半导体)二极管 diode。 [A1]
(b) 过原点的直线; [B1] 经过 $(0.80\text{ V}, 20\text{ mA})$($I = 0.80/40 = 0.020\text{ A}$)。 [B1]
(c) 由图,$I = 5.0\text{ mA}$ 时 X 两端电压 = $0.70\text{ V}$; [C1] 电阻两端电压 = $0.005 \times 20 = 0.10\text{ V}$; [C1] $\text{e.m.f.} = 0.70 + 0.10 = 0.80\text{ V}$。 [A1]
(d) 0(二极管反接,几乎无电流)。 [A1]
(e) 电阻电流 = $0.80/20 = 0.040\text{ A}$; [C1] X 两端 $0.80\text{ V}$,由图 X 的电流 = $40\text{ mA} = 0.040\text{ A}$; [C1] 总电流 = $0.080\text{ A}$。 [A1]
9.4 本章小结与教学提示 Summary & Teacher's Notes
建议 5 课时。三个高频定义:电流(flow of charge carriers / rate of flow of charge)、电势差(energy transferred per unit charge)、电阻(ratio of p.d. to current)。$I = Anvq$ 的计算常结合 $P = VI$ 求电流;电阻率题注意直径换半径、mm 换 m。$I\text{--}V$ 图的读图与草图是 Paper 2 常考 3–4 分题;解释白炽灯电阻变化时必须写“温度升高”。
物理量与核心关系速查
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明与考试要点 |
|---|---|---|
| 电荷 Charge | $Q = It$ | 量子化:$Q = \pm Ne$ |
| 微观电流 | $I = Anvq$ | $n$:载流子数密度 ($\text{m}^{-3}$),$v$:漂移速度 |
| 电势差 Potential difference | $V = W/Q$ | 单位 $\text{J/C} = \text{V}$,电能转化为其他形式能 |
| 电功率 Power | $P = VI = I^2 R = V^2/R$ | 串联优选 $I^2R$,并联优选 $V^2/R$ |
| 电阻 Resistance | $R = V/I$ | 严格定义,适用于任何元件在任何点 |
| 电阻率 Resistivity | $R = \rho L / A$ | 单位 $\Omega\text{ m}$;体积不变拉长时 $R \propto L^2 \propto 1/A^2$ |
| LDR / NTC 传感器 | 光强 $\uparrow$ / 温度 $\uparrow \implies R \downarrow$ | 热激发或光激发导致载流子数密度 $n$ 显著增大 |
9.5 本章练习 Practice questions
What is the definition of the potential difference (p.d.) across a component?
A the energy transferred per unit charge
B the energy transferred per unit current
C the power transferred per unit charge
D the power transferred per unit current
根据考纲及定义,电势差是单位电荷通过元件时转移(转化为其他形式)的能量 ($V = W/Q$)。
A wire carries a current of $2.0\text{ A}$ for $1.0\text{ hour}$. How many electrons pass a point in the wire in this time?
A $1.2 \times 10^{-15}$ B $7.2 \times 10^3$
C $1.3 \times 10^{19}$ D $4.5 \times 10^{22}$
$Q = It = 2.0 \times 3600 = 7200\text{ C}$;$N = Q/e = 7200 / (1.60 \times 10^{-19}) = 4.5 \times 10^{22}$。
Which graph shows the $I\text{--}V$ characteristic of a filament lamp?
白炽灯电流增大,温度升高,电阻增大,$I\text{--}V$ 图斜率逐渐减小。A 为二极管(正向),B 为恒温金属,C 为电阻随电压减小的元件(如热敏电阻)。
A straight copper wire, of diameter $4.2 \times 10^{-4}\text{ m}$, has a number density of free electrons of $8.5 \times 10^{28}\text{ m}^{-3}$. In a given time interval, a charge of $0.15\text{ C}$ moves through the wire. What is the average displacement of the free electrons along the wire in this time interval?
A $3.3 \times 10^{-8}\text{ m}$ B $2.0 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m}$
C $8.0 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m}$ D $2.5 \times 10^{-4}\text{ m}$
$Q = nAxq$(体积 $Ax$ 内的电荷全部通过),$A = \pi(2.1 \times 10^{-4})^2 = 1.39 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}^2$。
$x = \frac{Q}{nAq} = \frac{0.15}{8.5 \times 10^{28} \times 1.39 \times 10^{-7} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}} = 8.0 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m}$。
Conducting putty is a substance that conducts electricity and can be moulded into various shapes. A cuboid made from this putty has length $L$ and width $x$. The resistance between the square faces of the cuboid is $15\ \Omega$.
Some more of the putty is moulded into a cylinder that has length $L$. The resistance between the circular faces of the cylinder is also $15\ \Omega$. What is the radius of the cylinder?
A $\frac{x}{2}$ B $\frac{x}{\sqrt{\pi}}$ C $\frac{x}{\pi}$ D $\frac{2x}{\sqrt{\pi}}$
同材料、同长度、同电阻 $\implies$ 截面积相同:$\pi r^2 = x^2 \implies r = x/\sqrt{\pi}$。
An electrical component is connected into a circuit. Which component and which change causes an increase in the resistance of the component?
A filament lamp | increase in electric current
B light-dependent resistor (LDR) | increase in light intensity
C semiconductor diode | increase in electric current
D thermistor | increase in temperature
白炽灯电流增大,温度升高,电阻增大。B、D 电阻减小;二极管正向电流增大时电阻减小。
第十章 直流电路 D.C. circuits
熟练掌握标准电路符号及规范电路图的绘制;深刻理解电动势(e.m.f.)与电势差(p.d.)在能量转化方向上的本质区别(其他形式能转化为电能 vs 电能转化为其他形式能);熟练运用闭合电路欧姆定律($E = V + Ir$),分析“内阻分压(lost volts)”与端电压随电流变化的 $V\text{--}I$ 图像规律;深刻理解基尔霍夫第一定律(节点电流守恒,本质为电荷守恒)与第二定律(闭合回路电势降落守恒,本质为能量守恒);掌握串联与并联电阻公式的严格理论推导;熟练运用分压器原理分析包含热敏电阻与光敏电阻(LDR)的传感器控制电路;深入理解电位差计(potentiometer)与零示法(null method)的测量原理与无负载误差优势。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
10.1 电路符号 Circuit symbols
考纲要求的标准电路符号及分类速查:
| 元件名称 | 英文名称 | 元件名称 | 英文名称 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 单节电池 (长线正, 短线负) | cell | 电池组 | battery of cells |
| 直流电源 | power supply | 交流电源 | a.c. power supply |
| 开关 | switch | 接地 | earth / ground |
| 定值电阻 | resistor | 可变电阻(变阻器) | variable resistor |
| 热敏电阻(折线穿过) | thermistor | 光敏电阻 LDR(箭头指向内部) | light-dependent resistor |
| 电热器 | heater | 电位计(分压滑动端) | potentiometer |
| 电流表 (A) / 电压表 (V) | ammeter / voltmeter | 检流计 (G) | galvanometer |
| 电容器 (两等长平行线) | capacitor | 二极管 (三角形加竖线) | diode |
| 发光二极管 LED(箭头向外) | light-emitting diode | 保险丝(导线穿过矩形) | fuse |
| 灯泡(圆圈内打叉) | lamp | 扬声器 / 麦克风 / 电动机 | loudspeaker / microphone / motor |
• 导线用横平竖直的直线,转角为直角,不要画斜线;
• 元件画在各边的中间,不要画在角落上;
• 电池长线代表正极、短粗线代表负极;
• 电表连接:电流表串联进电路(理想内阻为 0),电压表并联在待测两端(理想内阻无穷大)。
10.2 电动势与内阻 Electromotive force and internal resistance
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source is the energy converted from other forms to electrical energy per unit charge in driving charge round a complete circuit: $E = \frac{W}{Q}$.
电动势:电源把其他形式的能量转化为电能、驱动单位电荷通过整个完整电路所转化的能量。单位 volt (V),$1\text{ V} = 1\text{ J C}^{-1}$。
电动势与电势差的核心区别
| 概念 | 能量转化方向 | 作用范围 |
|---|---|---|
| 电动势 e.m.f. ($E$) | 其他形式能 $\to$ 电能(化学能、光能等) | 电源,驱动电荷绕整个闭合电路 |
| 电势差 p.d. ($V$) | 电能 $\to$ 其他形式能(热能、光能等) | 负载元件两端 |
• $r$ 为电源内阻 (internal resistance);
• $V$ 为端电压 (terminal p.d.),即外电路两端电压;
• $Ir$ 为在电源内阻上损失的电压,称为 “lost volts”。
• 变形公式:$V = E - Ir$。当外电路开路(断路,$I = 0$)时,端电压等于电动势 $V = E$;外电路接通且电流 $I$ 增大时,端电压 $V$ 下降。
电源端电压与电流关系 $V\text{--}I$ 图
(a) State what is meant by the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a cell. [2]
(b) A cell of e.m.f. $E$ and internal resistance $r$ is connected to a variable resistor of resistance $R$. The current in the circuit is $I$. The variation with $1/I$ of $R$ is shown in Figure 4.1.
The graph is a straight line passing through $(0, -1.2\ \Omega)$ and $(0.80\text{ A}^{-1}, 4.8\ \Omega)$.
(i) Show that the relationship between $R$ and $1/I$ is $R = \frac{E}{I} - r$. [1]
(ii) Use Figure 4.1 to determine $E$ and $r$. [3]
(c) Calculate the power dissipated in the variable resistor when $R = 4.8\ \Omega$. [2]
(a) 化学能转化为电能; [B1] 驱动单位电荷通过整个闭合电路。 [B1]
(b)(i) $E = I(R + r) \implies \frac{E}{I} = R + r \implies R = E\left(\frac{1}{I}\right) - r$。 [B1]
(ii) 纵截距即为 $-r = -1.2\ \Omega \implies r = 1.2\ \Omega$; [A1]
斜率即为 $E = \frac{4.8 - (-1.2)}{0.80 - 0} = \frac{6.0}{0.80} = 7.5\text{ V}$。 [C1, A1]
(c) $I = \frac{1}{0.80} = 1.25\text{ A}$ [C1];$P = I^2 R = 1.25^2 \times 4.8 = 7.5\text{ W}$。 [A1]
10.3 基尔霍夫定律 Kirchhoff’s laws
The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction: $\sum I_\text{in} = \sum I_\text{out}$.
流入任一节点的电流之和等于流出该节点的电流之和。物理本质:电荷守恒 (conservation of charge)。
In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences: $\sum E = \sum IR$.
在任意闭合回路中,电动势的代数和等于各元件电势差($IR$ 降落)的代数和。物理本质:能量守恒 (conservation of energy)。
10.3.1 串联与并联电阻公式的严格推导
• 串联 (series):同一电流 $I$ 流过各电阻。由基尔霍夫第二定律,总电压 $V = V_1 + V_2 + V_3$,即 $IR = IR_1 + IR_2 + IR_3$,两边消去 $I$:
• 并联 (parallel):各电阻两端电压都为 $V$。由基尔霍夫第一定律,$I = I_1 + I_2 + I_3$,即 $\frac{V}{R} = \frac{V}{R_1} + \frac{V}{R_2} + \frac{V}{R_3}$,两边消去 $V$:
两个电阻并联快捷公式:$R = \frac{R_1 R_2}{R_1 + R_2}$。$n$ 个相同电阻 $R_0$ 并联:$R = R_0/n$。并联总电阻必然小于其中最小的一个。
(a) Three resistors of resistances $R_1$, $R_2$ and $R_3$ are connected in a network in parallel. The currents in the resistors are $I_1$, $I_2$ and $I_3$ respectively. The total current entering the network is $I_\text{T}$. The potential difference (p.d.) across the resistors is $V$. Derive the equation $\frac{1}{R_\text{T}} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3}$ where $R_\text{T}$ is the total resistance of the network. [2]
(b) Two identical resistance wires, each of resistance $2.8\ \Omega$, are connected in parallel to a battery with negligible internal resistance and electromotive force (e.m.f.) $12\text{ V}$.
(i) Calculate the current in the battery. [2]
(ii) Each resistance wire has a cross-sectional area of $6.1 \times 10^{-6}\text{ m}^2$. The wires are made from a metal with a number density of charge carriers of $8.5 \times 10^{28}\text{ m}^{-3}$. Calculate the average drift speed of the charge carriers in the wires. [2]
(c) A component X is added to the circuit in (b) as shown in Figure 5.3 (connected in series with one of the $2.8\ \Omega$ wires, in parallel with the other $2.8\ \Omega$ wire, across the $12\text{ V}$ battery). The current in the battery is now $5.0\text{ A}$. The resistance of each resistance wire remains $2.8\ \Omega$.
(i) State the name of component X. [1]
(ii) Determine the resistance of component X. [3]
(iii) A change in the environment of component X causes the current in the battery to decrease. The resistance of the resistance wires remains constant. State and explain how the environment of X has changed. [2]
(a) 由基尔霍夫第一定律 $I_\text{T} = I_1 + I_2 + I_3$,各电阻电压都为 $V$:$\frac{V}{R_\text{T}} = \frac{V}{R_1} + \frac{V}{R_2} + \frac{V}{R_3}$ [B1];两边除以 $V$ 得 $\frac{1}{R_\text{T}} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3}$ [B1]。
(b)(i) $R_\text{T} = (\frac{1}{2.8} + \frac{1}{2.8})^{-1} = 1.4\ \Omega$ [C1];$I = 12 / 1.4 = 8.6\text{ A}$ [A1]。
(ii) 每根导线电流 $8.6 / 2 = 4.3\text{ A}$:$v = \frac{I}{Anq} = \frac{4.3}{6.1 \times 10^{-6} \times 8.5 \times 10^{28} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}} = 5.2 \times 10^{-5}\text{ m s}^{-1}$ [C1, A1]。
(c)(i) 光敏电阻 LDR。 [B1]
(ii) 下支路电流 = $12 / 2.8 = 4.29\text{ A}$,上支路电流 $I_\text{X} = 5.0 - 4.29 = 0.71\text{ A}$ [C1];上支路总电阻 = $12 / 0.71 = 16.8\ \Omega$ [C1];$R_\text{X} = 16.8 - 2.8 = 14\ \Omega$ [A1]。
(iii) 电池电流减小 $\implies$ 总电阻增大 $\implies$ X 的电阻增大; [M1] 所以照射到 X 上的光强减弱(环境变暗)。 [A1]
10.4 分压电路 Potential dividers
两个电阻串联在电源两端,电流相同,电压按电阻成正比分配(串联电压按电阻比分配)。输出电压可从其中一个电阻两端引出。
传感器电路 (Sensor circuits)
把 $R_2$ 换成热敏电阻或 LDR:
• 热敏电阻在下($R_2$ 位置):温度升高 $\implies R_2$ 减小 $\implies V_\text{out}$ 减小。若要温度升高时输出增大,把热敏电阻与定值电阻交换位置。
• LDR 在下:光变暗 $\implies R_\text{LDR}$ 增大 $\implies V_\text{out}$ 增大(可用于路灯自动开启电路)。
• 调节敏感度:用可变电阻代替定值电阻,可以调节触发的温度或光强阈值。
10.4.1 电位差计与零示法 Potentiometer and null methods
工作原理:均匀电阻丝 AB 两端加恒定电压,丝上电势沿长度均匀下降,任意一段的电压与长度成正比($V \propto l$)。把待测电池(或电压)与检流计 G 接到 A 和滑动触点 J 之间,移动 J 直到检流计读数为零(平衡点 balance point):此时待测电压等于 AJ 段的电压,且待测支路中没有电流。
1. 平衡时待测电池中无电流,没有内阻上的“lost volts”,测得的是真正的电动势;
2. 检流计只需判断有无电流,不需要精确校准标度;
3. 注意事项:待测电池的正极必须与驱动电池的正极接在同一端(A),否则找不到平衡点;待测电压必须小于 AB 两端总电压。
A circuit consists of a battery, a high-resistance voltmeter and four fixed resistors as shown. The battery has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) of $15.0\text{ V}$ and negligible internal resistance.
Upper branch: $24.0\ \Omega$ in series with $6.0\ \Omega$.
Lower branch: $6.0\ \Omega$ in series with $9.0\ \Omega$.
A voltmeter V is connected between the midpoints of the two branches. What is the reading on the voltmeter?
A $3.0\text{ V}$ B $6.0\text{ V}$ C $9.0\text{ V}$ D $12.0\text{ V}$
上支路:$24.0\ \Omega$ 两端电压 = $15.0 \times \frac{24}{30} = 12.0\text{ V}$;
下支路:$6.0\ \Omega$ 两端电压 = $15.0 \times \frac{6}{15} = 6.0\text{ V}$。
两中点相对左端的电势降落分别为 $12.0\text{ V}$ 和 $6.0\text{ V}$,电压表读数 = $12.0 - 6.0 = 6.0\text{ V}$。
The diagram shows a thermistor and a variable resistor connected in series to a battery. A voltmeter is connected across the thermistor. The temperature of the thermistor decreases. What happens to the reading on the voltmeter, and which change to the resistance of the variable resistor is needed to cause the voltmeter reading to return to its initial value?
温度降低,热敏电阻阻值增大,分得电压增大,电压表读数增大。要使读数恢复,需让可变电阻也按比例增大(两者电阻之比恢复原值),即增大可变电阻。
10.5 本章小结与教学提示 Summary & Teacher's Notes
建议 6 课时。重点难点:(1) e.m.f. 与 p.d. 的定义及区别(能量转化方向);(2) $E = V + Ir$ 的综合题,如并联后端电压变化;(3) 基尔霍夫定律分别对应电荷守恒与能量守恒(选择题高频);(4) 串并联公式的推导(2 分“derive”题);(5) 传感器分压电路的定性分析——要求学生写出完整因果链:“温度 $\downarrow \to R_\text{th} \uparrow \to$ 其分得电压 $\uparrow$”。零示法注意讲清“平衡时检流计无电流”的意义。
物理量与核心关系速查
| 物理量 / 关系 | 公式 | 说明与考试要点 |
|---|---|---|
| 电动势 Electromotive force | $E = W/Q$ | 其他形式能 $\to$ 电能,绕整个电路 |
| 内阻与闭合电路 | $E = V + Ir = I(R + r)$ | $V\text{--}I$ 图纵截距 $E$,斜率 $-r$ |
| 基尔霍夫第一定律 | $\sum I_\text{in} = \sum I_\text{out}$ | 物理本质:电荷守恒 (conservation of charge) |
| 基尔霍夫第二定律 | $\sum E = \sum IR$ | 物理本质:能量守恒 (conservation of energy) |
| 串联电阻 | $R = R_1 + R_2 + \cdots$ | 推导基于第二定律:$V = V_1 + V_2 + \cdots$ |
| 并联电阻 | $1/R = 1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + \cdots$ | 推导基于第一定律:$I = I_1 + I_2 + \cdots$ |
| 分压电路 | $V_\text{out} = \frac{R_2}{R_1 + R_2}V_\text{in}$ | 串联分压与电阻成正比 |
| 电位差计 | $E_1 / E_2 = l_1 / l_2$ | 零示法,平衡时无电流流经待测电源 |
10.6 本章练习 Practice questions
A battery with internal resistance is connected by wires to an external resistor. Which statement describes the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery?
A It is the energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge through a connecting wire.
B It is the energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge through the complete circuit.
C It is the energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge through the external resistor.
D It is the energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge through the internal resistance.
电动势定义为驱动单位电荷通过整个闭合完整电路 (complete circuit) 所转化的能量。
Kirchhoff’s first and second laws are a consequence of the conservation of different quantities. What are those quantities?
A Kirchhoff’s first law: charge | Kirchhoff’s second law: energy
B Kirchhoff’s first law: energy | Kirchhoff’s second law: current
C Kirchhoff’s first law: current | Kirchhoff’s second law: charge
D Kirchhoff’s first law: energy | Kirchhoff’s second law: charge
第一定律基于电荷守恒 (conservation of charge),第二定律基于能量守恒 (conservation of energy)。
A battery of electromotive force (e.m.f.) $18.0\text{ V}$ and negligible internal resistance is connected to a network of three fixed resistors as shown. Right branch consists of $100\ \Omega$ and $400\ \Omega$ in series ($500\ \Omega$ total). Left branch has resistor X. The current in the battery is $0.108\text{ A}$. What is the resistance of resistor X?
A $125\ \Omega$ B $167\ \Omega$ C $250\ \Omega$ D $500\ \Omega$
右支路 $500\ \Omega$ 的电流 = $18.0 / 500 = 0.036\text{ A}$;
X 的电流 = $0.108 - 0.036 = 0.072\text{ A}$;
$R_\text{X} = 18.0 / 0.072 = 250\ \Omega$。
A battery of electromotive force (e.m.f.) $6.0\text{ V}$ and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with a resistor of resistance $6.0\ \Omega$ and a variable resistor of resistance from zero to $4.0\ \Omega$. A voltmeter is connected across the variable resistor. The resistance of the variable resistor is changed. What is the range of the voltmeter reading?
A $0\text{ V} - 2.4\text{ V}$ B $0\text{ V} - 3.6\text{ V}$
C $2.4\text{ V} - 6.0\text{ V}$ D $3.6\text{ V} - 6.0\text{ V}$
可变电阻为 0 时读数 $0\text{ V}$;为 $4.0\ \Omega$ 时读数 = $6.0 \times \frac{4.0}{10.0} = 2.4\text{ V}$。
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is connected across the terminals of a cell that has internal resistance. A voltmeter is connected across the LDR.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement. [3]
(b) The cell has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) of $4.90\text{ V}$. At a particular light intensity, the LDR has a resistance of $230\ \Omega$ and a potential difference (p.d.) across it of $4.78\text{ V}$.
(i) Identify one possible source of systematic error in measuring the p.d. across the LDR using a digital voltmeter. [1]
(ii) Calculate the power dissipated in the LDR. [2]
(iii) Determine the internal resistance of the cell. [2]
(iv) The intensity of the light illuminating the LDR is gradually decreased. State what happens (decreases / unchanged / increases) to: the resistance of the LDR; the current in the cell; the p.d. across the LDR. [3]
(a) 电池符号(可标内阻 $r$) [B1];LDR 符号正确并接在电池两端 [B1];电压表与 LDR 并联 [B1]。
(b)(i) 零点误差 / 校准误差(或接线接触电阻)。 [B1]
(ii) $P = \frac{V^2}{R} = \frac{4.78^2}{230} = 0.099\text{ W}$。 [C1, A1]
(iii) $E = V + Ir$,其中 $I = \frac{4.78}{230} = 0.0208\text{ A}$:$r = \frac{4.90 - 4.78}{0.0208} = 5.8\ \Omega$。 [C1, A1]
(iv) LDR 电阻:increases [B1];电池电流:decreases [B1];LDR 两端电压:increases(电流减小,内阻上的 lost volts 减小)。 [B1]
(a) State what is meant by an electric current. [1]
(b) A cell has electromotive force (e.m.f.) $1.50\text{ V}$ and internal resistance $0.75\ \Omega$. Draw the variation of the terminal potential difference (p.d.) with current in the cell for current between $0\text{ A}$ and $1.6\text{ A}$. [2]
(c) A metal wire X has length $6.8\text{ m}$ and cross-sectional area $2.0 \times 10^{-7}\text{ m}^2$. The resistance of the wire is $0.82\ \Omega$. The wire is connected in parallel with a fixed resistor of resistance $R$, and this combination is connected to the cell in (b). The current in the cell is $1.8\text{ A}$.
(i) Calculate the resistivity $\rho$ of the metal from which wire X is made. [2]
(ii) Calculate $R$. [3]
(iii) Calculate the power dissipated in the internal resistance of the cell. [2]
(a) 电荷载流子的流动 (flow of charge carriers)。 [B1]
(b) 从 $(0, 1.50\text{ V})$ 出发、斜率为负的直线 [M1];经过 $(1.60\text{ A}, 0.30\text{ V})$($V = 1.50 - 1.6 \times 0.75 = 0.30\text{ V}$)。 [A1]
(c)(i) $\rho = \frac{RA}{L} = \frac{0.82 \times 2.0 \times 10^{-7}}{6.8} = 2.4 \times 10^{-8}\ \Omega\text{ m}$。 [C1, A1]
(ii) 端电压 = $1.50 - 1.8 \times 0.75 = 0.15\text{ V}$ [C1];定值电阻的电流 = $1.8 - 0.15 / 0.82 = 1.6\text{ A}$ [C1];$R = \frac{0.15}{1.6} = 0.093\ \Omega$。 [A1]
(iii) $P = I^2 r = 1.8^2 \times 0.75 = 2.4\text{ W}$。 [C1, A1]
第十一章 粒子物理 Particle physics
深入理解原子与原子核结构,掌握卢瑟福 $\alpha$ 粒子散射实验的实验事实与三条革命性结论(核式结构、原子内部绝大部分为空、集中了全部正电荷与几乎全部质量);掌握核素符号(${}^A_Z\text{X}$)、质子数、中子数与同位素严格定义;对比分析 $\alpha$、$\beta^-$、$\beta^+$ 和 $\gamma$ 辐射的本质、穿透本领、电离本领及电场偏转特征;熟练书写并配平核衰变方程,掌握核子数守恒与电荷守恒;理解正电子等反粒子概念与中微子假说,深刻剖析 $\alpha$ 衰变分立能谱与 $\beta$ 衰变连续能谱的物理机制;熟记六种夸克($u, d, c, s, t, b$)及其电荷特征;掌握强子分类(重子 $qqq$ 与介子 $q\bar{q}$)及质子($uud$)、中子($udd$)的夸克组成;深入理解 $\beta^-$ 衰变($d \to u$)与 $\beta^+$ 衰变($u \to d$)在夸克层面的弱相互作用本质。
00 考纲学习目标 Syllabus Learning Outcomes
11.1 原子、原子核与辐射 Atoms, nuclei and radiation
11.1.1 $\alpha$ 粒子散射实验(卢瑟福实验 Geiger–Marsden experiment)
用 $\alpha$ 粒子轰击极薄的金箔,荧光屏观察散射角分布。该实验彻底推翻了“汤姆孙枣糕模型”,建立了原子核式结构:
| 观察事实 Observation | 得出的结论 Conclusion |
|---|---|
| 绝大多数($\approx 99.9\%$)$\alpha$ 粒子直接穿过,几乎不发生偏转 | 原子内部绝大部分是空的 (most of the atom is empty space) |
| 少数 $\alpha$ 粒子发生大角度偏转($> 90^\circ$) | 原子中心存在一个带正电的核(同种电荷库仑斥力排斥 $\alpha$ 粒子) |
| 极少数(约 $1/8000$)被反弹回来(接近 $180^\circ$) | 原子核的体积极小,但集中了原子的几乎全部质量(密度极大,不会被 $\alpha$ 粒子撞开) |
• 原子半径:$\sim 10^{-10}\text{ m}$(埃 $\text{Å}$ 数量级);
• 原子核半径:$\sim 10^{-15}\text{ m}$(费米 $\text{fm}$ 数量级)。
两者尺寸相差整整 5 个数量级,原子核体积仅占原子体积的 $10^{-15}$。
11.1.2 核素与同位素
• 核素符号:${}^A_Z\text{X}$,其中 $Z$ 为质子数(原子序数 proton number);$A$ 为核子数(质量数 nucleon number);中子数 $N = A - Z$。
• 同位素 (isotopes):具有相同质子数 $Z$(同一化学元素)、但不同中子数 $N$(核子数 $A$ 不同)的原子核。例如 ${}^{12}_{\ 6}\text{C}$、${}^{13}_{\ 6}\text{C}$、${}^{14}_{\ 6}\text{C}$。同位素具有几乎完全相同的化学性质,但物理性质与核稳定性不同。
11.1.3 核反应的守恒定律
在一切核反应与核衰变过程中,必须严格遵守两条基本守恒定律:
1. 核子数守恒 (conservation of nucleon number):反应前后上标之和相等($\sum A_\text{before} = \sum A_\text{after}$);
2. 电荷守恒 (conservation of charge):反应前后下标之和相等($\sum Z_\text{before} = \sum Z_\text{after}$)。
11.1.4 放射性辐射的性质综合对比
| 性质 | $\alpha$ 粒子 | $\beta^-$ 粒子 | $\beta^+$ 粒子 | $\gamma$ 射线 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 本质 | 氦核 (${}^4_2\text{He}$) | 快速电子 (${}^0_{-1}e$) | 快速正电子 (${}^0_{+1}e$) | 高能光子(电磁波) |
| 质量 | $4\text{ u}$ | $m_e \approx \frac{1}{1840}\text{ u}$ | $m_e$ | $0$ |
| 电荷 | $+2e$ | $-1e$ | $+1e$ | $0$ |
| 典型速度 | $\sim 0.05c$ | 可达 $0.99c$ | 可达 $0.99c$ | $c$ |
| 电离本领 | 极强(双电荷、慢速) | 中等 | 中等 | 弱 |
| 穿透本领 | 极弱(一张纸或数厘米空气即可挡住) | 中等(数毫米铝板挡住) | 与电子湮灭 | 极强(需数厘米铅板或数米混凝土减弱) |
| 电/磁场偏转 | 向负极偏转(曲率半径大) | 向正极偏转(曲率半径小) | 向负极偏转 | 不偏转(不带电) |
• $\alpha$ 衰变:${}^A_Z\text{X} \to {}^{A-4}_{Z-2}\text{Y} + {}^4_2\text{He}$。在 $N\text{--}Z$ 图上向左下方移动 $(-2, -2)$。
• $\beta^-$ 衰变:${}^A_Z\text{X} \to {}^A_{Z+1}\text{Y} + {}^0_{-1}e + \bar{\nu}$。在 $N\text{--}Z$ 图上向右下方移动 $(+1, -1)$。
• $\beta^+$ 衰变:${}^A_Z\text{X} \to {}^A_{Z-1}\text{Y} + {}^0_{+1}e + \nu$。在 $N\text{--}Z$ 图上向左上方移动 $(-1, +1)$。
• 同位素循环规律:一次 $\alpha$ 衰变使 $Z$ 减 2,两次 $\beta^-$ 衰变使 $Z$ 加 2,因此“1 个 $\alpha$ + 2 个 $\beta^-$”衰变后,子核回到同一元素的另一种同位素($A$ 减少 4)。
11.1.5 反粒子与中微子
• 反粒子 (antiparticle):与对应粒子具有完全相同的质量、但相反的电荷。正电子 $e^+$ 是电子的反粒子;反质子带 $-e$。
• 中微子 $\nu$:电中性、质量极小(近似为零)、几乎不与物质发生相互作用。$\beta^-$ 衰变放出反中微子 $\bar{\nu}$;$\beta^+$ 衰变放出中微子 $\nu$。
• 能量分布谱($\alpha$ 分立 vs $\beta$ 连续):
- $\alpha$ 衰变只产生两个产物粒子(子核与 $\alpha$ 粒子)。由动量守恒和能量守恒,$\alpha$ 粒子的动能是确定的单一值(分立能谱 discrete energy);
- $\beta$ 衰变产生三个产物粒子(子核、$\beta$ 粒子与(反)中微子)。衰变释放的总能量一定,但这部分能量在 $\beta$ 粒子与(反)中微子之间随机分配,因此 $\beta$ 粒子的动能呈现从零到最大值 $E_\text{max}$ 的连续分布 (continuous range of energies)。这正是 1930 年泡利 (Pauli) 预言中微子存在的决定性依据。
A nucleus decays in a series of stages. At each stage, an $\alpha$-particle or $\beta^-$ particle is emitted. Which sequence of emitted particles forms a nucleus that is an isotope of the original nucleus?
A $\alpha, \alpha, \beta^-, \beta^-$ B $\beta^-, \beta^-, \alpha$
C $\alpha, \alpha, \alpha, \alpha$ D $\beta^-, \beta^-, \beta^-$
同位素要求质子数 $Z$ 不变。B 选项:$+1 + 1 - 2 = 0$(净变化为 0,正确)。A 选项净变化 $-2$;C 选项净变化 $-8$;D 选项净变化 $+3$。
11.2 基本粒子 Fundamental particles
11.2.1 夸克表格 (The Quarks)
考纲要求掌握六种“味 (flavour)”的夸克及其反夸克:
| 夸克 quark | 符号 | 电荷 | 反夸克 antiquark | 符号 | 电荷 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| up 上 | u | $+\frac{2}{3}e$ | anti-up | $\bar{\text{u}}$ | $-\frac{2}{3}e$ |
| down 下 | d | $-\frac{1}{3}e$ | anti-down | $\bar{\text{d}}$ | $+\frac{1}{3}e$ |
| charm 粲 | c | $+\frac{2}{3}e$ | anti-charm | $\bar{\text{c}}$ | $-\frac{2}{3}e$ |
| strange 奇 | s | $-\frac{1}{3}e$ | anti-strange | $\bar{\text{s}}$ | $+\frac{1}{3}e$ |
| top 顶 | t | $+\frac{2}{3}e$ | anti-top | $\bar{\text{t}}$ | $-\frac{2}{3}e$ |
| bottom 底 | b | $-\frac{1}{3}e$ | anti-bottom | $\bar{\text{b}}$ | $+\frac{1}{3}e$ |
11.2.2 粒子的系统分类 (Classification of particles)
• 基本粒子 (fundamental particles):没有内部结构、不能再分割的最小物质单元。考纲中的基本粒子包括:六种夸克(及其反夸克)、轻子(电子、正电子、中微子、反中微子等)。
• 质子、中子不是基本粒子!它们由夸克复合而成。
• 强子 (hadrons):由夸克组成、能够感受到强相互作用力 (strong force) 的粒子。强子细分为两类:
1. 重子 (baryons):由 3 个夸克 ($qqq$) 组成。
- 质子 proton:$\text{uud} \implies +\frac{2}{3} + \frac{2}{3} - \frac{1}{3} = +1e$;
- 中子 neutron:$\text{udd} \implies +\frac{2}{3} - \frac{1}{3} - \frac{1}{3} = 0$;
2. 介子 (mesons):由 1 个夸克和 1 个反夸克 ($q\bar{q}$) 组成,例如 $\pi^+ (\text{u}\bar{\text{d}})$,电荷为 $+\frac{2}{3} + \frac{1}{3} = +1e$。
• 轻子 (leptons):本身就是基本粒子,不受强相互作用力影响(电子 $e^-$、正电子 $e^+$、中微子 $\nu$、反中微子 $\bar{\nu}$)。
11.2.3 $\beta$ 衰变中的夸克微观转化
在微观夸克层面,$\beta$ 衰变的本质是夸克在弱相互作用力下的味道转化:
核反应:$n \to p + e^- + \bar{\nu}$
夸克变化:$\text{udd} \to \text{uud} + e^- + \bar{\nu}$
本质转化:$d \to u + e^- + \bar{\nu}$
电荷守恒验证:$-\frac{1}{3} = +\frac{2}{3} - 1 + 0$
核反应:$p \to n + e^+ + \nu$
夸克变化:$\text{uud} \to \text{udd} + e^+ + \nu$
本质转化:$u \to d + e^+ + \nu$
电荷守恒验证:$+\frac{2}{3} = -\frac{1}{3} + 1 + 0$
(注:自由质子稳定,$\beta^+$ 衰变只发生在核内)
A positively charged meson consists of a quark and an antiquark. What could be the quark and antiquark?
A charm and antiup
B down and antitop
C strange and antibottom
D up and antistrange
介子带正电,合电荷需为 $+1e$。
A: $+\frac{2}{3} - \frac{2}{3} = 0$;
B: $-\frac{1}{3} - \frac{2}{3} = -1$;
C: $-\frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3} = 0$;
D: $+\frac{2}{3} + \frac{1}{3} = +1$(正确)。
(a) One of the conclusions from the $\alpha$-particle scattering experiment was that the atom is mostly empty space. State the observation from the experiment that provides evidence for this conclusion. [1]
(b) An $\alpha$-particle travelling with a speed of $5.60 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$ collides with a stationary gold nucleus of mass $197\text{ u}$. After the collision, the $\alpha$-particle is travelling with a speed of $5.38 \times 10^6\text{ m s}^{-1}$ in the opposite direction to its initial motion. No external forces act on this system.
(i) Show that the momentum of the $\alpha$-particle before the collision is $3.72 \times 10^{-20}\text{ kg m s}^{-1}$. [2]
(ii) Use conservation of momentum to calculate the speed of the gold nucleus after the collision. [2]
(iii) The absolute uncertainty in each of the measured speeds of the $\alpha$-particle is $\pm 5 \times 10^4\text{ m s}^{-1}$. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the change in velocity of the $\alpha$-particle. [2]
(c) Determine the number of up quarks in a nucleus of ${}^2_1\text{H}$. [1]
(d) Describe the general quark composition of a meson. [1]
(a) 绝大多数 $\alpha$ 粒子直接穿过(或偏转极小)。 [B1]
(b)(i) $p = mv = 4 \times 1.66 \times 10^{-27} \times 5.60 \times 10^6 = 3.72 \times 10^{-20}\text{ kg m s}^{-1}$。 [C1, A1]
(ii) 取 $\alpha$ 初速度方向为正:$4\text{u} \times 5.60 \times 10^6 = 197\text{u} \times v - 4\text{u} \times 5.38 \times 10^6$ [C1] $\implies v = 2.2 \times 10^5\text{ m s}^{-1}$。 [A1]
(iii) 速度变化量 $\Delta v = 5.60 \times 10^6 - (-5.38 \times 10^6) = 1.098 \times 10^7\text{ m s}^{-1}$,绝对不确定度 $= 5 \times 10^4 + 5 \times 10^4 = 1 \times 10^5\text{ m s}^{-1}$ [C1];百分比不确定度 $= \frac{1 \times 10^5}{1.098 \times 10^7} \times 100\% = 0.9\%$。 [A1]
(c) ${}^2_1\text{H}$(氘核)含 1 个质子 ($\text{uud}$) 和 1 个中子 ($\text{udd}$),up 夸克共有 $2 + 1 = 3$ 个。 [A1]
(d) 一个夸克和一个反夸克 (one quark and one antiquark)。 [B1]
11.3 本章小结与教学提示 Summary & Teacher's Notes
建议 4 课时。本章概念多、计算少。务必让学生熟记:夸克电荷表;质子 uud、中子 udd;$\beta^\pm$ 衰变的夸克变化与(反)中微子归属;$\alpha$ 散射的“观察—结论”严格对应。Paper 2 常见 3 分题:“解释 $\beta$ 粒子能量连续”——关键词:each decay releases the same total energy; shared between $\beta$ particle and (anti)neutrino in different proportions。
物理量与核心关系速查
| 物理量 / 概念 | 符号 / 公式 | 说明与考试要点 |
|---|---|---|
| 核素 Nuclide | ${}^A_Z\text{X},\ N = A - Z$ | 核反应中严格遵守核子数守恒与电荷守恒 |
| $\alpha$ 衰变 | $A - 4,\ Z - 2$ | 释放氦核,动能呈分立谱 (discrete energy) |
| $\beta^-$ 衰变 | $Z + 1;\ d \to u$ | 释放电子与反中微子 $\bar{\nu}$,动能连续分布 |
| $\beta^+$ 衰变 | $Z - 1;\ u \to d$ | 释放正电子与中微子 $\nu$,动能连续分布 |
| 夸克电荷 | $u, c, t: +\frac{2}{3}e;\ d, s, b: -\frac{1}{3}e$ | 反夸克符号加横线,电荷符号相反 |
| 重子 / 介子 | $qqq\ /\ q\bar{q}$ | 统称强子 (hadrons),由夸克组成,受强力作用 |
| 轻子 Leptons | $e^\pm,\ \nu,\ \bar{\nu}$ | 基本粒子,不受强力作用 |
| 统一原子质量单位 | $1\text{ u} = 1.66 \times 10^{-27}\text{ kg}$ | 对应 ${}^{12}_{\ 6}\text{C}$ 原子质量的 $1/12$ |
11.4 本章练习 Practice questions
A stream of identical particles flows between two points. The stream of particles does not form an electric current. What could the particles be?
A $\alpha$-particles B $\beta^-$ particles
C neutrons D protons
电流是电荷的流动;中子电中性不带电,所以流动不形成电流。
A nucleus P undergoes $\beta^+$ decay, becoming nucleus Q and emitting two particles X and Y as shown.
$\text{P} \to \text{Q} + \text{X} + \text{Y}$
Which two particles are X and Y?
A electron and antineutrino
B electron and neutrino
C positron and antineutrino
D positron and neutrino
$\beta^+$ 衰变发射正电子 (positron) 和中微子 (neutrino)。
An unstable nucleus ${}^{11}_{\ 6}\text{C}$ decays in a single step to form a stable nucleus. During the decay, a nucleon of the unstable nucleus is changed when an up quark in the nucleon becomes a down quark. What is the stable nucleus that is formed?
A ${}^{11}_{\ 5}\text{B}$ B ${}^{11}_{\ 7}\text{N}$
C ${}^{12}_{\ 6}\text{C}$ D ${}^{10}_{\ 6}\text{C}$
$u \to d$:质子变为中子($\beta^+$ 衰变),核子数 $A$ 不变,质子数 $Z$ 减 1:${}^{11}_{\ 5}\text{B}$。
Uranium, ${}^{238}_{\ 92}\text{U}$, decays into radium, ${}^{226}_{\ 88}\text{Ra}$, after a sequence of alpha and beta-minus decays. Which row gives the correct number of alpha decays and beta-minus decays?
A $\alpha: 2,\ \beta^-: 3$
B $\alpha: 3,\ \beta^-: 2$
C $\alpha: 2,\ \beta^-: 0$
D $\alpha: 3,\ \beta^-: 0$
$A$ 减少 12 $\implies$ 需 3 次 $\alpha$ 衰变($Z$ 相应减少 6 变为 86);而实际 $Z$ 从 92 变为 88(仅减少 4),因此还需 2 次 $\beta^-$ 衰变($Z$ 增加 2 变为 88)。
(a) State what is meant by a meson. [1]
(b) The elementary charge is $e$. Explain, in terms of quark composition, how a baryon may have an overall charge of: (i) $-1e$; (ii) $+2e$. [3]
(c) The nuclide ${}^{18}_{\ 8}\text{X}$ undergoes $\beta^+$ decay to produce nuclide ${}^P_Q\text{Y}$ and one other particle Z, as shown in the equation:
${}^{18}_{\ 8}\text{X} \to {}^P_Q\text{Y} + {}^R_S\beta^+ + {}^0_0\text{Z}$
(i) State the values of $P, Q, R$ and $S$. [2]
(ii) State the name of particle Z. [1]
(iii) State the net change in quark composition as nuclide X turns into nuclide Y. [1]
(iv) Explain why the emission of particle Z results in the $\beta^+$ particles from the decays of different nuclei of ${}^{18}_{\ 8}\text{X}$ having a continuous range of kinetic energies. [2]
(a) 由一个夸克和一个反夸克组成的强子。 [B1]
(b) 夸克电荷的大小只有 $\frac{2}{3}e$ 或 $\frac{1}{3}e$;重子由三个夸克组成。 [C1]
(i) $-1e$:$(-\frac{1}{3}) + (-\frac{1}{3}) + (-\frac{1}{3})$,如 $\text{ddd}$。 [A1]
(ii) $+2e$:$(+\frac{2}{3}) + (+\frac{2}{3}) + (+\frac{2}{3})$,如 $\text{uuu}$。 [A1]
(c)(i) $P = 18$,$R = 0$ [A1];$Q = 7$,$S = +1$。 [A1]
(ii) (电子)中微子 neutrino。 [B1]
(iii) 一个 up 夸克变为 down 夸克($u \to d$)。 [B1]
(iv) 每次衰变释放的总能量相同 [B1];这些能量在 $\beta^+$ 粒子与中微子之间分配,每次分配比例不同,所以 $\beta^+$ 粒子动能连续分布。 [B1]
(a) (i) State what is meant by isotopes. [2]
(ii) A thorium-232 nucleus (${}^{232}_{\ 90}\text{Th}$) undergoes radioactive decay to form another nucleus. A sequence of further decays occurs until a nucleus is formed that is another isotope of thorium. In each decay, either a single $\alpha$-particle or a single $\beta^-$ particle is emitted. Determine the minimum numbers of $\alpha$-particles and $\beta^-$ particles that could be emitted during the sequence of decays to form the other isotope of thorium from thorium-232. [2]
(iii) State the nucleon number and proton number of the thorium isotope formed by the sequence of decays. [2]
(b) (i) State the quark composition of a proton. [1]
(ii) Describe the change to the quark composition of the proton when it undergoes $\beta^+$ decay. [1]
(a)(i) 同一元素(质子数相同)的原子核 [B1],中子数(核子数)不同 [B1]。
(ii) 最少 1 个 $\alpha$ 粒子 [A1],2 个 $\beta^-$ 粒子 [A1]。
(iii) ${}^{228}_{\ 90}\text{Th}$:核子数 228 [A1],质子数 90 [A1]。
(b)(i) up, up, down ($\text{uud}$)。 [B1]
(ii) 一个 up 夸克变为 down 夸克($u \to d$)。 [B1]